Photo 1.4 Police body-worn cameras have the potential to improve policing, but they have limitations as well.
AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes
For agencies that did not use BWCs in 2016, the primary reason was cost: cost of the cameras themselves, as well as cost associated with video storage, maintenance, and public records requests. This is not a minor issue. Most cameras cost between $300 and $500, not to mention all of the other related costs. Depending on the size of the agency and its budget, the cost of this technology can be significant.
The use of BWCs does not come without other concerns as well. In the 2016 survey, agency representatives identified privacy as the most common obstacle associated with the use of BWCs.17 Not surprisingly, some citizens (especially certain victims) may not wish their interactions with officers to be recorded. However, if the camera is not always on, the police may be criticized for not having video when critical incidents occur. Likewise, if cameras are always on, officers are not afforded any privacy at work. Another consideration is if footage is used as evidence, will the video show an accurate picture of what happened, or only what was in view of the camera? The video may not show the intent of officers’ actions and may not reveal important aspects of the whole situation in which officers acted. Further, cameras have been touted as a way to increase transparency and accountability of police work but interestingly, black citizens have been found to be more skeptical of the actual benefits of the technology.18 Yet another possible issue centers on the prosecution of subjects where there is no video. Will prosecutors be at a disadvantage in establishing proof should there not be video as evidence? With regard to research on the impact of BWCs, studies clearly show that BWCs lead to fewer citizen complaints. As for BWCs and the use of force, some studies show that BWCs lead to less frequent use of force, some do not.19 When there are effects, the reasons are not entirely clear—do BWCs affect police behavior, citizens’ behavior, or both? While police body-worn cameras are not likely to be a panacea to the problems that sometimes arise in police–citizen encounters, their potential to strengthen police accountability is a strong argument in favor of their use.
Citizens’ freedoms, combined with the ability to vote and their critical role in the accountability process, make citizens important in our system of government. The police operate in this environment. Because citizens have freedoms from government, our society has placed limitations on the police. Further, police must ultimately answer to citizens regarding their conduct and operations. One might argue that these circumstances have made the job of the police more difficult—or at least more difficult to do effectively. Effectively policing a free society is a challenge.
The Controversies and Difficulties of Policing
The police play an important role in the functioning of our society. Their role is so vital that it is difficult to imagine our society without the police. Although policing is an essential function, many controversies and difficulties are associated with the practice. These issues are discussed throughout this book and are introduced here.
A Question to Consider 1.2 Police Power and Crime Solving
In 2017, approximately 62% of homicides in the United States were solved, meaning that the perpetrator was identified and apprehended. Of all crimes, the police have the greatest success at solving homicides, yet this percentage is currently near a historic all-time low. There are many reasons for this. Do you think that if the police were given more power and authority to conduct investigations they would be able to solve more homicides and other crimes? If so, what would be the consequences of this? Do you think the trade-off would be worth it? Explain.
The Police Are Expected to Prevent and Solve Crime
The police have been given a very difficult task: They are expected to prevent people from committing crimes and to solve the crimes they are unable to prevent. In doing this, the police maintain order in our society. However, many factors have been identified as contributing to criminal behavior, and the police do not control any of these factors. The police do not have any control over poverty, whether children grow up with proper role models, the weather, unemployment, or people’s self-control. Furthermore, the police are primarily reactive, which means they are dependent on citizens to notify them that a crime has occurred so they can respond, and crimes are often not reported to police. The police must operate within the confines of the law, and they operate with limited resources. All of these things considered, the police are often at a disadvantage in the “game” of cops and robbers, and this helps explain the seemingly low rate at which crimes are solved (Figure 1.1). This suggests that the police have an impossible mandate.20
impossible mandate: This term reflects the idea that the police have been assigned the task of crime control, but because they cannot control the factors that cause crime, this task is difficult—if not impossible—to accomplish.
Figure 1.1 Crimes Cleared (Solved) by the Police, 201721
The police are expected to solve the crimes that they do not prevent, but for various reasons they have limited success in this regard.
Citizens May Not Cooperate With the Police, and May Even Do Them Harm
Crime prevention and crime solving depend on cooperative relationships between citizens and the police. However, for a variety of reasons, the unfortunate reality is that sometimes citizens are not interested in assisting the police. This lack of assistance can come in many different forms. For example, approximately 50% of crimes are not reported to the police by citizens (victims). It is difficult for the police to address crimes that they are not aware of. Further, in some places and among some people, providing information to the police that may help in a criminal investigation is severely looked down upon as demonstrated by the adage “snitches end up with stiches.” Without assistance of citizens, the crime-solving abilities of the police are limited. Sometimes, as discussed more directly in Chapter 10, citizens direct violence toward the police. Ideally, citizens are a friend to the police, but in some instances, they are actually a foe. This makes the relationship between the police and the public complicated, to say the least.
Photo 1.5 Because of the unequal distribution of serious street crime, the police spend more time in some areas than in others.
Chicago Tribune/Tribune News Service/Getty Images
The Police Pay More Attention to Some Crimes, Some People, and Some Areas Than Others
The police are not equally concerned with all types of crime. The police, local police in particular, are more oriented toward what have been referred to as predatory types of crime, or street crimes, such as murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, and so on. Part of the reason for the greater focus on these types of crime is that police territory is the streets, literally. The police patrol the streets and sidewalks. The streets are public space; the police have the most presence in public spaces, as opposed to private spaces like living rooms or business offices. When the police are in private places, it is usually only because they were invited or needed there.
Because they are responsible for crime control, officers tend to have a greater presence in areas where there is more street crime. Such areas tend to have high levels of unemployment, poverty, and population