3 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Energy resolution of different ED spectrometer (blue) and WD spec...Figure 4.2 Spectrum of stainless steel, measured by WDS and EDS: (a) low-ene...Figure 4.3 Influence of the selected lattice plane (a) and the collimator si...Figure 4.4 Spectra of a gold alloy measured with a proportional counter and ...Figure 4.5 Energy dependence of energy resolution of ED-detectors (FWHM, ful...Figure 4.6 Detection efficiency of prop-counter and scintillation counter.Figure 4.7 Detection efficiency of ED-detectors.Figure 4.8 Throughput of ED-detectors and their influence on the detector re...Figure 4.9 Peak shape changes for very high count rates of WD spectrometers....Figure 4.10 Effect of the count rate on the peak-to-background ratios.Figure 4.11 Comparison of the ratios of the relative standard deviation (rel...Figure 4.12 Low-energy spectral background due to a Compton-induced escape e...Figure 4.13 Escape and pile-up peak of Ti radiation (y-axis in square root s...Figure 4.14 Pt spectrum measured without and with Al filter (y-axis in squar...Figure 4.15 Shelf and tail contributions to a Cu line (y-axis in square root...Figure 4.16 Principle layout of EDS instruments (MCA, multichannel analyzer)...Figure 4.17 Handheld instruments from various manufacturers: (a) XL5, Thermo...Figure 4.18 Portable instruments of different manufacturers: (a) FXL, Thermo...Figure 4.19 Various energy-dispersive spectrometers: (a) Epsilon 3, Panalyti...Figure 4.20 Principle layout of WDS instruments.Figure 4.21 A selection of wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectrometers: (a) Ze...Figure 4.22 A selection of multichannel X-ray spectrometers: (a) S8 Lion, Br...Figure 4.23 Principle setup of a TXRF instrument (MCA, multichannel analyzer...Figure 4.24 Total reflection X-ray spectrometers: (a) TXRF-310, Rigaku Corp....Figure 4.25 Layout of an X-ray spectrometer with monoenergetic excitation.Figure 4.26 Spectrum of an oil sample excited with Mo radiation.Figure 4.27 Measurement geometry for the excitation with polarized radiation...Figure 4.28 Energy-dispersive instruments using polarized radiation: (a) XEP...Figure 4.29 Basic layouts of position-sensitive X-ray spectrometers with a c...Figure 4.30 Coating thickness instruments with collimators: (a) XDAL, Helmut...Figure 4.31 Instruments utilizing X-ray optics for beam focusing: (a) M4 Tor...Figure 4.32 Macro-X-ray fluorescence spectrometer for the investigation of l...Figure 4.33 Confocal geometry for the investigation of 3D elemental distribu...Figure 4.34 Grazing incident measurement geometry.Figure 4.35 Grazing exit measurement geometry.
4 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Characteristics of the Fe intensity for the Cr–Fe binary material...Figure 5.2 Characteristics of the Fe intensity for the Fe–Ni binary material...Figure 5.3 Characteristics of the Fe intensity for the Cr–Fe–Ni material sys...Figure 5.4 Excitation spectra for different tube parameters (y-axis in squar...Figure 5.5 Influencing the measured spectrum with an Al filter.Figure 5.6 Reduction of diffraction peaks and the scattered Rh-L radiation w...Figure 5.7 Transmission of X-rays in different measurement atmospheres.Figure 5.8 Standard deviation and error of repeated measurements.Figure 5.9 Energies of X-ray lines.Figure 5.10 Frequency distribution of X-ray lines as a function of the atomi...Figure 5.11 Typical line overlaps for energy-dispersive spectrometers.Figure 5.12 Methods for the determination of the peak intensity: (a) WDS ins...Figure 5.13 Spectrum of a tool steel sample fitted with pure element peaks (...Figure 5.14 Calibration curves based on net intensities (continuous line) an...Figure 5.15 Setting of background points.Figure 5.16 Background fit of an energy-dispersive measured spectrum (y-axis...Figure 5.17 Calculation and use of a calibration curve.Figure 5.18 Bracketing method for highly accurate analysis with two differen...Figure 5.19 Representation of the trueness of an analysis method: (a) compar...Figure 5.20 Determination of the limit of detection from the calibration fun...Figure 5.21 Deviations of the gold concentrations measured with SDD and prop...Figure 5.22 Comparison of the accuracy of standard-based and standard-free m...Figure 5.23 Typical calibration curves for the emission and absorption signa...Figure 5.24 Measurable layer thickness ranges for certain element groups and...Figure 5.25 Corrected calibration curve using two reference samples.Figure 5.26 Scheme of a principal component analysis.
5 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Error distribution in the analytical process.Figure 6.2 Target model for the illustration of random and systematic errors...Figure 6.3 Results of repeated measurement with a high (a) and lower (b) sta...Figure 6.4 Specification limits of a process.Figure 6.5 Gaussian distribution of measuring results.Figure 6.6 Gaussian distributions with different standard deviations.Figure 6.7 Statistical distribution around the expected value and shifted by...Figure 6.8 Total measurement uncertainties of analytical results.
6 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Setup of an atomic absorption spectrometer.Figure 7.2 Principal setup of an arc-spark spectrometer.Figure 7.3 Basic setup of an optical emission spectrometer with excitation b...Figure 7.4 Basic setup of a laser-induced breakdown spectrometer.Figure 7.5 Basic setup of a mass spectrometer.Figure 7.6 Excitation cross-sections of different elements for monoenergetic...
7 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Absorption of radiation in a material layer.Figure 8.2 Half-width of organic tissues for different energies.
8 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Pressed pellet of metals chips in a ring of steel.Figure 9.2 Change in measured Cr content as a function of grinding passes.Figure 9.3 Influence of acids on the measured signal of Cu.Figure 9.4 Spectra of high-purity gold with varying small silver contents (yFigure 9.5 Change of the boron intensity in a boron-silicate glass for sever...Figure 9.6 Matrix influence of different polymers on the Br-K intensities (A...Figure 9.7 Elastic and inelastic scattered tube radiation of various pure po...Figure 9.8 Comparison between mass fractions of hydrogen (a), carbon (b), an...Figure 9.9 Sample carriers for abrasion analyses: corundum disk for conventi...Figure 9.10 Relative differences for a bulk and an abrasive analysis of stee...
9 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Limits of detection for geological material, measured with an ED...Figure 10.2 Limits of detection for element oxides in coal for EDS instrumen...Figure 10.3 Ferroalloy with different grain size.Figure 10.4 Crucible for remelting ferroalloys.Figure 10.5 Process scheme for the digestion of ferro-silicon.Figure 10.6 Sampling of a slag sample from the melt with a sampling probe (a...Figure 10.7 Spectra of a blank and a loaded filter.Figure 10.8 Element distribution along the trace of collected dust.Figure 10.9 Examples of raw secondary fuels (a) and crushed material (b).Figure 10.10 Pellets produced at different temperatures have different stren...
10 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Plastic film with a drop of a solution (a), spectra of a solutio...Figure 11.2 LiTRap-sample holder, not used (a) and with metal particles from...Figure 11.3 Samples after complexation: a Chelex®-100-pellet with synth...
11 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Spectra of water fleas measured at conventional excitation geome...Figure 12.2 Element-dependent sensitivities of a TXRF spectrometer.Figure 12.3 Critical sample thicknesses for neglecting the matrix interactio...Figure 12.4 Secondary electron microscope (SEM) image of a TXRF sample (drie...Figure 12.5 Spectra of different amounts of fine-grained Zn-particles. esc, ...Figure 12.6 Limits of detection in aqueous solutions.Figure 12.7 Spectrum of NIST SRM 1640 – fresh water.Figure 12.8 Analysis results for Hg determined with and without EDTA-complex...Figure 12.9 TXRF spectrum of an environmental aerosol sample, particle size ...Figure 12.10 Calibration curve for platinum in blood serum.Figure 12.11 TXRF spectrum of lung tissue of a foundry worker.Figure 12.12 Depth profiles of As ions in a Si wafer determined with TXRF, R...
12 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Calibration curves for Au-layers for both Au-L- and Au-M-fluores...Figure 14.2 Calibration curve for Al layer thickness based on Fe absorption....Figure 14.3 Results of coating thickness measurements in relative and emissi...Figure 14.4 0.2 mm wide Au/Ni/Cu coated area on PCB using a spot size of 0.1...Figure 14.5 Simulated spectra of a 5 μm NiP/Fe system with different P conte...Figure 14.6 Comparison of given