War and Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa. Ariel I. Ahram

Joost R. Hiltermann, A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

      32 32. Therése Pettersson and Kristine Eck, “Organized Violence, 1989–2017,” Journal of Peace Research 55, no. 4 (2018): 535–47.

      33 33. Neil Bowie and Alex Schmid, “Databases on Terrorism,” in Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research, edited by Alex Schmid (New York: Routledge, 2011).

      34 34. Additionally, GTD requires two of the following three criteria to be present: (1) the act must be motivated by a political, economic, religious, or social goal; (2) there must be evidence of an intention to coerce, intimidate, or convey some other message to a larger audience (or audiences) than the immediate victims; (3) and the action must be outside the context of legitimate warfare activities and transgress international humanitarian law concerning civilians or non-combatants. See National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, “Global Terrorism Database” (College Park, Md.: START, University of Maryland, 2019).

      35 35. Paul D. Williams, War and Conflict in Africa (Cambridge: Polity, 2016), 42.