Economically and Environmentally Sustainable Enhanced Oil Recovery. M. R. Islam

Fracture analysis from CBIL (from Batini et al., 2002).Figure 5.56 Fracture asset mapped as pole density (from Batini et al., 2002)...Figure 5.57 Core permeability vs. core porosity for a heterogeneous formatio...Figure 5.58 Developing filter out of NMR data.Figure 5.59 Filter for Well “A” (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.60 Filter for “Well B” (Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.61 Filter for “Well C” (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.62 Correlation between core permeability and core porosity (from Ha...Figure 5.63 Correlation between pereambility and BG (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.64 Correlation of permeability vs. S_gx0 (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.65 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “A” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.66 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “B” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.67 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “C” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.68 Correlation between core Pc (blue dots) and NMR Pc (pink line) (...Figure 5.69 Typical relative permeability (y-axis) and capillary pressure cu...Figure 5.70 Representation of the relationships of the relationships between...Figure 5.71 Porosity is only slightly affected by net stress for carbonate f...Figure 5.72 Porosity variation with effective stress (after Okiongbo, 2011)....Figure 5.73 Effect of geological age on porosity (from Ehrenberg et al., 200...Figure 5.74 Porosity variation under net overburden conditions (from Petrowi...Figure 5.75 Effect of overburden stress on matrix and fracture permeability ...Figure 5.76 General trend of N_c vs. residual saturation.Figure 5.77 Several correlations between capillary number and residual oil s...Figure 5.78 General trend of breakthrough recovery and instability number.Figure 5.79 Instability number vs. breakthrough recovery for immiscible gas ...Figure 5.80 Correlation of mobility ratio with oil recovery for waterflood (...Figure 5.81 Correlation between breakthrough recovery and Peters-Flock stabi...Figure 5.82 There is no correlation between capillary number and water break...Picture 5.4 Viscous fingering in a miscible displacement process.Figure 5.83 Typical CO₂ WAG process.Figure 5.84 Breakthrough recovery vs. instability number for miscible flood....Figure 5.85 End-point relative permeability correlates with residual oil sat...Figure 5.86 Relative permeability curves are altered by lowering of interfac...Figure 5.87 Permeability jail can be removed with thermal or chemical altera...Picture 5.5 Outcrops often show how fractures must be prevalent in consolida...Picture 5.6 Thin section photomicrographs of sandstones illustrating A, occu...Picture 5.7 Thin section photomicrographs of sandstones depicting A, open (n...Picture 5.8 Slabbed sandstone displaying reticulated fracture network on wet...Figure 5.88 Critical gas saturation for various permeability values of a gas...Figure 5.89 Permeability vs. porosity correlation depends largely on the nat...Figure 5.90 Correlation of porosity vs. permeability for various types of fo...Figure 5.91 Improvement factor due to open fractures.Figure 5.92 The effect of fractures on k_v/k_h.Figure 5.93 Pore size can be affected by fracture distribution and thereby i...Picture 5.9 Commercial softwares can help identify fractures in FMS logs.Figure 5.94 Rose diagram helps quantify the role of fractures.Figure 5.95 Transiting from macro-pore scale to an initial reservoir model, ...Figure 5.96 REV for a reservoir is much larger than the core samples collect...Picture 5.10 The idea is to transit from microscopic to reservoir scale, fol...Figure 5.97 Laboratory test results under an overburden pressure of 50 MPa....Figure 5.98 Determination of the nature of fractures from hk data.Figure 5.99 Flow chart for Poisson’s ratio determination.Picture 5.11 Different scenarios in fractured shale formation (from Islam et...Figure 5.100 Flow chart for Young’s modulus determination.

      6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 US oil production in million barrels/day (data from EIA, 2019).Figure 6.2 Global production and consumption (From EIA, 2019). Liquids fuels...Figure 6.3 Number of EOR projects during 1971-2006 (from Alvarado and Manriq...Figure 6.4 EOR projects in post Cold war era (from IEA, 2018).Figure 6.5 Global EOR projects (From IEA, 2018).Figure 6.6 Global oil production due to EOR activities.Figure 6.7 Solar EOR of Oman.Figure 6.8 (a) status quo; (b) Sustainable (from IEA, 2018b).Figure 6.9 Various available EOR methods, with their typical percentage incr...Figure 6.10 Various EOR techniques with subcategories.Figure 6.11 Reserve-to-production ratios (R/P) for various regions and over ...Figure 6.12 US oil production under different categories in 2000 (Data from ...Figure 6.13 Incremental recovery owing to EOR (data from IEA, 2017).Figure 6.14 US reserve/production (R/P) ratio variation over the years (Data...Figure 6.15 US reserve/production (R/P) ratio variation over the years (Data...Figure 6.16 Crude oil production continues to rise overall (Enerdata, 2018)....Figure 6.17 History of US crude oil and lease condensate proved reserve (Dat...Figure 6.18 USA reserve variation in recent history (From EIA, 2018).Figure 6.19 US Gas production history (EIA, 2018).Figure 6.20 US gas reserve-production history (Data from EIA, 2018).Figure 6.21 Sulfur content of the U.S.A. crude over the last few decades (Fr...Figure 6.22 Declining API gravity of USA crude oil (from EIA, 2019a).Figure 6.23 Decline in high-sulfur fuel consumption (From EIA, 2019).Figure 6.24 Worldwide crude oil quality (From Islam, 2014).Figure 6.25 Projection of tight oil under different conditions (from EIA, 20...Figure 6.26 Technically recoverable oil and gas reserve in USA (From Islam e...Figure 6.27 US projections of utilization of various energy sources for elec...Figure 6.28 Last few decades have seen an increase in efficiency of refineri...Figure 6.29 US refining capacity (from EIA, 2018a).Figure 6.30 R/P Ratio vs. proven reserve for top oil producing countries.Figure 6.31 Declared reserve for various countries (Updated from Islam et alFigure 6.32 Changes in global reserve shares (From BP, 2018).Figure 6.33 Distribution of proved reserve for various regions (From BP, 201...Figure 6.34 Distribution of proved reserve for various regions (From BP, 201...Figure 6.35 Global R/P ratios during 1980-2017 (data from BP reports).Figure 6.36 Recovery rates decline around the world (From Speight and Islam,...Figure 6.37 Future prospect of unconventional gas (EIA, 2019).Figure 6.38 Future prospect of unconventional oil and gas in various countri...Figure 6.39 Global unconventional shale oil and gas (dark spots: with resour...Figure 6.40 Three is a lot more oil and gas reserve than the ‘proven’ reserv...Figure 6.41 Major investment in oil sands in Canada (From Islam et al., 2018...Figure 6.42 Past emissions and projected emissions of Alberta, Canada.Figure 6.43 Oil production rate history for top oil producers (from EIA, 201...Figure 6.44 Key to sustainability in energy management.Figure 6.45 Distribution of World’s proven reserve (from Alboudwarej et al.,...Figure 6.46 Viscosity change invoked by temperature (From Alboudwarej et al....Figure 6.47 Much more oil can be recovered with double dividend of environme...Figure 6.48 The need for EOR is evident in production and oil quality declin...Figure 6.49 For the same investment, return is much different depending on t...Figure 6.50 Drilling activities in the United States for various years (EIA,...Figure 6.51 Uncompleted drilling activities in USA (from EIA, 2019).Figure 6.52 Locations of uncompleted drilled wells (from EIA, 2019).

      7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Projected recovery with thermal and CO₂ injection schemes.Figure 7.2 Evolution of oil production (1000 bbl/day) of EOR projects in the...Figure 7.3 Evolution of CO₂ projects and oil prices in the United States. Fr...Figure 7.4 CO₂-EOR recovery in the United States throughout history (from Is...Figure 7.5 Update information and future prediction of CO₂-EOR (data from EI...Figure 7.6 Alberta government strategy.Figure 7.7 Natural gas production with CO₂ injection schemes. From Khan et a...Figure 7.8 Alberta’s plan to implement comprehensive Carbon management schem...Figure 7.9 CO₂ sequestration demonstration projects around the world.Figure 7.10 Canada’s greenhouse gas emission status (data from Canada Climat...Picture 7.1 Petra Nova Project.Figure 7.11 Carbon intensity of the Petro Nova project (EIA, 2018).Figure 7.12 Rendering CO₂ zero-waste.Figure 7.13 Bitumen production, past and future prediction (from AER, 2018)....Figure 7.14 Annual crude oil production from Oil Sands by Technology (Holly Figure 7.15 Schematic of the SAGD process.Figure 7.16 Average permeability for various formation and their depth. From...Figure 7.17 Schematic of bitumen extraction and processing.Figure 7.18 Phase diagram for various process reactions (from Bose, 2015).Figure 7.19 Removal of sulphur.Figure 7.20 As environmental regulations have become more stringent, natural...Figure 7.21 Change in viscosity for change in temperature.Figure 7.22 Surface tension changes with temperature with different slopes f...Figure 7.23 Residual oil saturation as a function of temperature. Modified f...Figure 7.24 Residual oil reduction with temperature for pre- and poststeamfl...Figure 7.25 Comparison between LASER and cyclic steam injection (modified fr...Figure 7.26 First pilot results of LASER (AER, 2017).Figure 7.27 LASER in second cycle (AER, 2017).Figure 7.28 Greenhouse gas dividend related to Cold Lake project (Bayestehpa...Figure 7.29 Various zones with principal reactions.Figure 7.30 Trends in ISC and HPAI. From