Economically and Environmentally Sustainable Enhanced Oil Recovery. M. R. Islam

Tichy et al. (2017) discussed an interesting aspect of water content and sustainability. They studied the role of humidity on the behavior of insects. Optimal functionality is a direct function of humidity optimization within an organic body. This optimization is necessary for metabolic activities, as well as overall survival abilities. From an evolutionary perspective, this need of optimum humidity can explain the existence of hygroreceptors very likely. Interestingly, these hygroreceptors are associated in antagonistic pairs of a moist and a dry cell in the same sensillum with a thermoreceptive cold cell. Although the mechanism by which humidity stimulates the moist and dry cells is little known, it is clear that the duality that Avicenna envisioned persists in all levels of natural functions. Also of significance is the fact that the moist cell and the dry cell appear to be bimodal in that their responses to humidity strongly depend on temperature. Either modality can be changed independently of the other, but both are related in some way to the amount of moisture in the air and to its influence upon evaporation (Tichy et al., 2017). This scientific model was altered by subsequent European scholars, who recognized the natural refining process through the ‘theory of three humidities’ (Newman, 2014).

      Figure 2.4 Scientific pathway of a chemical reaction modified from Kalbarczyk (2018).

      2.2.4 Arsenic Sulphide

Arsenic sulphide, in its natural form has been in use for longest time. Similar to any other natural products, Arsenic trisulfide had a wide range of industrial use, including tanning agent, often with with indigo dye. Orpiment is found in volcanic environments, often together with other arsenic sulfides, mainly realgar (“ruby sulphur” or “ruby of arsenic”). Similar to mercury, this naturally occurring chemical was used throughout history as a potent poison or a medicine (Frith, 2013). Arsenic was used in traditional Chinese as well as Indian medicine. In addition, it was popular as a cosmetic product in eye shadow in the Roman era. In traditional Chinese medicine, preparations can be obtained in the form of coated or uncoated pills, powder or syrups. Different studies have shown that the majority of traditional Chinese medicines, such as Chinese herbal balls, show high doses of As varying between 0.1 and 36.6 mg per tablet, causing patients to get intoxicated by the high As dose and Indian ayurvedic herbal medicine products are also known to cause lead, mercury and As intoxication.

      Avicenna recommended arsenic with the gum of pine for asthma. He also prescribed arsenic in honey water, for a wide range of remedies, including for herpes esthiomenos of the nose (Aegineta, 1847). Avicenna discussed the use of white, red, and yellow arsenic, all being used in their natural state. It was much later that ‘refined’ arsenic emerged. For instance, arsenic was known as early as the fourth century B.C., when Aristotle referred to one of its sulfides as “sandarach,” or red lead (now known as As₄S₄). It was only in 1250 that Albertus Magnus, a German philosopher and alchemist that isolated the element. Of course, the word arsenic comes from the Persian word “zarnikh,” which means “yellow orpiment,” which the Greeks adopted as “arsenikon”. This is commonly denominated as Arsenic trisulfide (As₂S₃), although natural state contains other chemicals that are in perfect balance with the molecular form. Of course, the more common form is crystalline oxides, As₂O₃ (white arsenic). The most common form, however, is the Arsenopyrite (FeAsS), an iron arsenic sulfide, also called mispickel.

Nowadays, the therapeutic use of As is making a comeback in modern medicine. Arsenic-trioxide, for instance, is used in treating patients with relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). However, the notion of natural state of arsenic being different from synthetic one’s is absent.

      Long before being hailed as “the arsenic that saved” in early 20^th century (Vahidnia et al., 2007), Muslim scholars considered Arsenic sulphide as a chemical of crucial pharmaceutical value. The word arsenic is derived from the Persian zarnikh and Syriac zarniqa, later incorporated into ancient Greek as arsenikon, which meant “masculine” or “potent” and referred primarily to orpiment, or yellow arsenic. The word became arsenicum in Latin and arsenic in old French, from which the current English term is derived (Vahidnia et al., 2007).

      In post-Renaissance Europe, the use of arsenic as a poisoning agent became common. Its application in getting rid of wealthy people became so popular that by the 17th century France, white arsenic became known as poudre de succession, the ‘inheritance powder’ (Vahidnia et al., 2007). In the 19^th century, the same tactic was used to commit insurance fraud. During that era, one of the most infamous case was that of Goeie Mie (‘Good Mary’) of Leiden, The Netherlands, who poisoned at least 102 friends and relatives between 1867 and 1884, distributing arsenic-trioxide (ATO) in hot milk to her victims after opening life insurance policies in their names. Of the 102 people poisoned, 45 persons became seriously ill, often with neurological symptoms and 27 persons died; 16 of whom were her own relatives (De Wolff and Edelbroek, 1994).

      Research during that period led to the development of post-mortem detection of poison, followed by decrease in incidents of poisoning with arsenic. During the 19th century, European women applied arsenic powder to whiten their faces as well as to their hair and scalp to destroy vermin. It was also thought that arsenic consumption by women gave “beauty and freshness” to the skin. For the first time in Europe, medicinal applications of arsenic are found in late 18^th century, when various chronic disorders were being treated with arsenic (Bentley and Chasteen, 2002). Arsenic continued to be used in cosmetics well into the early twentieth century and this was a common source of accidental poisoning.

      When arsenic is heated, it oxidizes and releases an odor similar to that of garlic. Striking various arsenic-containing minerals with a hammer might also release the characteristic odor. At ordinary pressure, arsenic, like carbon dioxide, does not melt but sublimes directly into vapor. Liquid arsenic only forms under high pressure.

Curiously, alchemists gave emphasis on characterizing material in terms of mercury and arsenic. Mercury, lead and arsenic are effective mitotic poisons (turbagens) at particular concentrations, due to their known affinity for thiol groups and induce various types of spindle disturbances. New Science classifies these clastogenic effects to be S-dependent. The availability of cations affect the number of aberrations produced quantitatively. Plants, following lower exposure, regain normalcy on being allowed to recover (Patra et al., 2004). However, as usual New Science does not distinguish between natural arsenic and processed arsenic, thereby obscuring any usefulness of the research findings.

      Historically, New Scientists⁵ have focused on medicinal effects of arsenic when it comes to finding any positive aspect of arsenic. Citations of medicinal applications range from Ancient China to Ancient Greece through Ancient India (Doyle, 2009). Hippocrates (469–377 BC) recommended arseniko as a tonic whilst Dioscorides (c. 54–68AD) recommended it for asthma. A Greek surgeon‐herbalist working in Nero’s army, he made extensive observations on asthma, including the use of realgar mixed with resin, inhaled as a smoke for the relief of cough or taken as a potion for asthma. Reportedly, it was used to kill Britanicus in 55 AD during the reign of Emperor Nero (37–68AD).

      Egyptologists claim that ancient Egyptians used arsenic to harden copper at least 3000 years ago. This was confirmed by Islam et al. (2010), who reviewed ancient technologies and found them to be totally sustainable because they used no artificial mass or energy source. They also discussed the fact that such chemicals were added in the embalming fluid during processing of mummies. Of course, the Medieval Islamic golden era saw numerous applications through alchemy. However, the role of arsenic in material processing has drawn little attention from New Scientists. In Europe, during the New Science era, the use of arsenic is synonymous with processed derivatives of arsenic, rather than naturally occurring version. Graeme and Pollack (1998) described how artificial processing of arsenic can render both mercury and arsenic into toxic agents.