With the downfall of the Roman Empire came a real decline in building activity and technology. Then around 900 AD, the powerful Roman Catholic Church revitalized stone construction as it intensely pursued church and cathedral building throughout Europe. Even during this somewhat stagnant period, great building efforts were taking place. Glorious Gothic cathedrals highlighted the European landscape, and many other impressive structures were being designed and built all over the world.
Craft training and education became a major focus, and craft guilds were organized, even forming special brotherhoods around specific trades. Building construction became a major industry in and of itself. The two most important building trades were carpenters and stonemasons. Three distinct stages of ability were recognized—master, journeyman, and apprentice. These three stages of organized labor are still widely recognized today among the trade unions.
The Renaissance
Toward the end of the Middle Ages, a renewed interest in architecture, building, and science took place, continuing the transformation and evolution of construction and building design. It was during this time that the concept of the master builder began to be questioned as the most efficient way to build. Leone Battista Alberti, considered by some to be the precursor to the modern-day architect, argued that he could create drawings and models as a way to direct master craftsmen without actually being involved in the building process. Alberti was a theoretical architect rather than a practical hands-on architect-builder. He furnished plans of his buildings but never participated in the actual construction. This was the first application of a new philosophy that would eventually separate design and construction as distinct functions. Interestingly, there is a real push today to return to the master builder concept—but with the recognition that the modern master builder is a collaborative team.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution had a major influence on all of society. The construction industry was no exception. As construction became recognized as separate and unique from design, more theoretical concepts involving physics, mathematics, chemistry, and thermodynamics were being applied, and building science as a discipline began to emerge. The various building professions took on increasingly defined roles—the art of architecture, the science of engineering, and the craft of building became even more distinct. As architecture moved further away from the building process, the engineering disciplines took on a greater role for overall technical coordination, while general contractors were left to assemble, organize, and manage the labor force, equipment, and materials on a project. Cast iron and wrought iron became the building materials of choice. These materials were being used to build bridges, railways, great exhibition halls, and various other buildings. New machinery and equipment such as steam shovels, steam hammers, and pile drivers were being invented to support building. The transformation of construction into a modern industry began during this period of time.
The Age of the Skyscraper
During the late 1800s, the production of steel and electricity really took center stage as factors that would influence the construction industry in a big way. It was a time of immense growth in building technology. Steel framing replaced iron framing and allowed for high-rise building. Portland cement and reinforced concrete were invented. Glass was now being mass-produced and was used to clad many of these new building frames. The dream of constructing tall buildings reaching to the sky became a reality when E.G. Otis invented the first passenger elevator. Building skyscrapers was seen as a way to conserve land as the pace of growth in American cities became a concern. Technological advancements in building science continued, electric power became commonplace in all structures, and advancements in heating and cooling systems made life easier for people in all climates of the world.
Construction started showing up as big business during this time. Although most building was still being performed by small and medium-sized companies, much larger organizations were forming, and the globalization of the construction industry had begun. Opportunities for extensive projects in housing, industry, transportation, and city development were popping up all over the world. The construction industry developed into a major economic sector.
The 20th Century
Although only a few advances in materials or technologies took place during the 20th century, new challenges were being imposed on the construction industry. After World War II, there was a construction boom in the United States and around the world. The demand for housing, industry, and infrastructure was enormous. Time, cost, and quality became critical concerns for those needing new facilities. The construction industry responded. Mechanized tools, panelized construction, and prefabrication inspired a whole new way to view the building process. New techniques emerged to help regulate and standardize building materials and methods. Building codes, standards, and specifications were established to help regulate and control the quality of materials and methods. Over time, as more residential, commercial, and industrial development started to spring up, new issues such as the environment, energy conservation, sustainability, safety, and workforce diversity started to add to the complexity of the building process in a way that had never been seen before.
infrastructure
The basic roadways, bridges, and railroad networks that support a community or society.
specifications
The written instructions from an architect or engineer accompanying the project plans pertaining to the quality of materials and workmanship required for the project.
The industry began to recognize that the correlation between sound management techniques and successful building practices was very important to the success of a project. The ability to measure and monitor progress and economic effectiveness of the construction process became more important as projects became increasingly complex. Although the discipline of engineering had been tapped to provide the management function for years, a new distinction was being drawn.
As early as 1935, a new educational program that focused specifically on construction was popping up at a few universities across the country. These early programs eventually evolved into what is now recognized as construction management. The idea was to merge management principles, methodologies, and techniques with the art, science, and craft of building and create a unique educational experience. In addition to teaching building science, the program introduced estimating, scheduling, project controls, and project administration techniques.
In 1965, representatives from nine universities met in Florida to form the Associated Schools of Construction (ASC). This organization's distinct mission was to promote construction management as a legitimate and unique area of study at the university. The organization's goal was to establish a four-year degree program that clearly identified construction management as a recognized discipline among allied disciplines such as engineering and architecture.
Today, there are more than 160 four-year colleges and universities listed with ASC offering construction management curricula. The programs are typically identified as construction management, construction engineering, engineering technology, building science, or construction science, and they are often affiliated with colleges or schools of engineering, architecture, or technology. The educational opportunities available today are discussed in greater detail later in this chapter; see the “Educational Offerings” section.
The Age of Technology
New technologies are impacting every aspect of our lives. The construction industry is no exception. There are computer applications across all aspects of the construction management function: programs for estimating, scheduling, project administration, building design, cost accounting, project controls, quality control, and information transfer. Computers are available on every job site, and increasingly we are seeing all kinds of field mobility software