If education authorities intend to implement coherent language policies, it is necessary to know how the different languages in contact are used in the diverse social contexts and how their functions are being extended or restricted. In order to understand this question, we have to know what the linguistic situation of the different languages is, what the existing motivation to learn them is, and which favorable or unfavorable attitudes are held. In this vein, bilingual education programs have much to say in the development of the dynamic nature of attitudes and motivation.
SEE ALSO: English in Asian and European Higher Education; Heritage Languages and Language Policy; Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms; Motivation in Second Language Acquisition; Teacher Education for Multilingual Education; World Englishes and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
References
1 Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behaviour. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press.
2 Basque Government. (2016). Sixth sociolinguistic survey 2016. Vitoria‐Gasteiz, Spain: Basque Government.
3 Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NY: Erlbaum.
4 Dörnyei, Z., & Al‐Hoorie, A. (2017). The motivational foundation of learning languages other than global English: Theoretical issues and research directions. Modern Language Journal, 101, 455–68.
5 Dörnyei, Z., Csizér, K., & Németh, N. (2006). Motivation, language attitudes and globalisation: A Hungarian perspective. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
6 Dörnyei, Z., Henry, A., & Muir, C. (2016). Motivational currents in language learning: Frameworks for focused interventions. New York, NY: Routledge.
7 Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P., & Henry, A. (Eds.) (2015). Motivational dynamics in language learning. Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
8 Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London, England: Edward Arnold.
9 Lasagabaster, D. (2016). The relationship between motivation, gender, L1 and possible selves in English‐medium instruction. International Journal of Multilingualism, 13, 315–32.
10 Lasagabaster, D. (2017). Language learning motivation and language attitudes in multilingual Spain from an international perspective. Modern Language Journal, 101, 583–96.
11 Lasagabaster, D. (2018). Fostering team teaching: Mapping out a research agenda for English‐medium instruction at university level. Language Teaching, 51, 400–16.
12 Ushioda, E. (2009). A person‐in‐context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 215–28). Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
Suggested Readings
1 Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (Eds.). (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self. Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
2 Garrett, P. (2010). Attitudes to language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Audiovisual Translation
DELIA CHIARO
Audiovisual translation (AVT) is the term used to refer to the transfer from one language to another of the verbal components contained in audiovisual works and products. Feature films, television programs, theatrical plays, musicals, opera, Web pages, and video games are just some examples of the vast array of audiovisual products available and that require translation. As the word suggests, audiovisuals are made to be both heard (audio) and seen (visual) simultaneously but they are primarily meant to be seen. We talk of “watching” a movie, a show, or even an opera; we “see” programs that are “shown” on television. However, while the verbal and visual codes in audiovisuals are linked to such an extent that the words naturally tend to rely heavily on the visuals, the translation of these products operates on a verbal level alone.
Precisely because audiovisual materials are meant to be seen and heard simultaneously, their translation is different from translating print. Written works are primarily meant to be read. Illustrations in books, newspapers, journals, and magazines such as photographs, diagrams, and graphs, are there to accompany and enhance the verbal content. On the other hand, the verbal and visual contents of audiovisual products function inseparably to create a meaningful whole.
Audiovisuals are made up of numerous codes that interact to create a single effect. On one level, audiovisual products contain a series of verbal messages that will be perceived both acoustically and visually. In filmic products, as well as what the actors say, audiences may also hear the lyrics of songs while simultaneously being exposed to a range of written information such as street signs, billboards, letters, notes, and so forth. Also, at the beginning and end of a program, substantial written information about it, such as the names of the director, producers, the cast, and the production team will also be visible. On a different level, but together with such acoustic and visual verbal input, filmic products also contain nonverbal sound effects and background noises, body sounds (breathing, laughter, crying, etc.), and music. At the same time, actors' facial expressions, gestures and movements, costumes, hairstyles, makeup, and so forth convey additional meaning. Furthermore, scenery, colors, special effects, and three‐dimensionality are also part of the filmic whole. AVT needs to take all this diversified verbal and visual information into account, bearing in mind that this inseparable link between verbal and visual codes may often constrain the translation process.
Multimedia Translation
Audiovisual products are typically created with the support of technological apparatus. Movie making traditionally involves the use of cameras and celluloid, the creation of Web pages requires a computer and specialized software, and so on. Similarly, many audiovisual products are also consumed by means of diverse technological media. Cinema screens, television sets, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and videogame consoles are examples of equipment normally adopted in order to make use of audiovisuals. Furthermore, filmic products can be accessed by means of terrestrial, satellite, or cable networks, in DVD format or in streaming from a computer connected to the World Wide Web. Likewise, their translations are both created and accessed through one or more electronic devices, hence the overlap with the alternative and all inclusive term, “multimedia translation.” For example, an AVT modality such as subtitling involves the use of sophisticated software while dubbing and voice‐over require specific hardware. In addition, users access these translations by means of screens (i.e., cinema, TV, computer, and smartphone screens) hence another overlapping term “screen translation.”
However, not all AVT involves screens. Theatrical productions such as musicals, as well as opera, are examples of audiovisual products that are traditionally performed live on stage. Typically, operas are performed in their original languages while audiences follow the written lyrics in translation in librettos. Speakers of the language in which the opera is performed also resort to librettos to help them understand what the characters are singing as the lyrics may be difficult to understand owing to the particular stress, pitch, and rhythm required by the conventions of the genre. Librettos thus exemplify intralingual translations which, unlike interlingual translation that regards language transfer between two different languages, concern the interpretation of verbal signs into a different system of signs in the same language (see Jakobson, 1959). Nowadays, however, opera translation is becoming highly technological with translations projected onto the proscenium in the form of surtitles or else provided in electronic librettos on the back of theatre seats.
Again,