There was a bewildering variety of coins in use in Elizabethan England. As nearly all English and European coins were gold or silver, they had intrinsic value apart from their official value. This meant that foreign coins circulated freely in England and were officially recognized, for example the French crown (écu) worth about 30p (72 cents), and the Spanish ducat worth about 33p (79 cents). The following table shows some of the coins mentioned by Shakespeare and their relation to one another.
Macbeth is a simple play. That is to say, the plot is straightforward, the characters clearly presented, the opposition of good and evil perfectly plain. There is not even much doubt, at any stage, about the ultimate fate of Macbeth and his wife. In fact, a heavy sense of inevitability hangs over all their actions. Nevertheless, where so much is obvious, there is still a great deal of mystery. Why does this sturdy soldier become a mean killer and, worse, a hirer of thugs to do his killing for him, particularly when he knows, and says, that his plans are sure to bring retribution upon him? Why does Lady Macbeth, an apparently loving wife, see it almost as a duty to drive herself and her husband into evil ways? And why do so many quite good men allow this vicious couple to gain total power and ruin the state of Scotland?
Some aspects of the Macbeth story have become horribly familiar in the course of the history of our own century. Several modem dictators have begun as brave soldiers and ended as crazy destroyers, so that the line between legitimate warfare and power-hungry violence has become very blurred indeed. Psychologists have shown us that, behind seemingly straightforward human motives, good or bad, there are often extremely complicated emotions and intentions. For these and other reasons this play, now nearly four hundred years old, based on the life of a man who lived six hundred years before Shakespeare himself, still exerts a great fascination on audiences and readers all over the world. In the summing-up at the end of this book an attempt will be made to analyse the reasons for this continued interest, and to go more deeply into the questions raised in this introduction. In the meantime, those new to the play may care to consider some of the intriguing ingredients of the play they are about to study, particularly those that are likely to be evident on first seeing or reading it.
The witches These three sinister creatures introduce the play, in a very brief first scene. They intend to meet with Macbeth, and they immediately convey an impression of impending horror. There is no clue to the nature of this horror, but we are uneasily aware of limitless possibilities. These agents of evil are at hand, ready to be consulted, ready to influence for the worse, for much of the play.
The good king King Duncan of Scotland soon appears, and impresses us with his integrity and generosity, as well as with his determination to do all he can for his kingdom’s welfare. He is, in the early stages, the representative of goodness, trust and benevolent order.
The ‘decent’ men We are introduced to a number of Scotsmen – the bleeding Sergeant, the king’s sons, Malcolm and Donalbain, Lennox, Ross, Banquo and Angus – who serve their king and country as well as they can. Under good leadership they are faithful and useful. They react in various ways to the kingship of the ruthless Macbeth.
The strongholds Much of the action takes place in the Scottish castles of Inverness, Forres, Dunsinane and Fife. These grim, grey containers of human turmoil provide effective settings for the deeds done. We are frequently reminded of their walls, battlements and heavy gates. The principal murders take place in or near them. Such deeds are partly hidden by their walls, or by darkness, or by both.
The weather The play starts with thunder, lightning, fog and filthy air; there is a moment of serene summer (seen through Duncan’s innocent eyes), followed by a brooding, overcast night, breaking into unprecedented tempest (the night of the first murder). The evening of the banquet is also calm, but with the prospect of rain. Banquo dies and, soon after, the Macduff family is destroyed. During the rest of the play there is no direct description of the weather. The disturbances seem to reflect not only Scotland’s time of trial but also the upheaval in Macbeth’s mind. For most of the last two acts he is settled in and almost resigned to his own evil.
Scotland and England Scotland, suffering under Macbeth’s tyranny, and England, an idyllic country under the saintly King Edward the Confessor, are vividly contrasted. But the essence of the contrast is not in any Scottish inferiority; rather, it is Scotland’s sheer misfortune to have such an inexplicably evil ruler as Macbeth, and England’s simple duty to help to destroy him.
Apparitions Apart from the witches themselves, there are several possibly supernatural elements in the play: the air-drawn dagger which Macbeth saw before he killed Duncan (though this might well have been the product of his own feverish imagination), the ghost of Banquo, and the things the witches conjure up for Macbeth’s inspection at the beginning of Act IV. As a member of a modern audience, how would you explain these visions? Are they an embarrassment, or do they add to the horrible reality of the story?
The words of the play Finally, as you go through the play, it should be stimulating to notice how Shakespeare uses words to gain his effects. Unfortunately there are many words and phrases which require explanation to twentieth century readers (which is why notes are provided), but a little thought and imagination can make a great deal clear. The verse rhythms, the images, the descriptive words, even the punning and other forms of word-play, all add to the main impression: this is a tale of human evil and human goodness much of which appeals directly to us today.
After this brief outline of the main features of Macbeth we shall look more closely and intently at its constituent parts and examine the contribution each makes to the whole effect. After this analysis of the ingredients of the play, the ‘Summing Up’ (page 247) will attempt to put things together again and leave you better equipped to explore the play for yourself.
The Language of the Play
It has already been said that many Shakespearean words and phrases require explanation to twentieth century readers and play-goers. It is not at all surprising that a play written nearly four hundred years ago should present problems of understanding. Living languages are always changing and developing. Another difficulty is that playwrights have always interested and amused audiences by making topical references. An Elizabethan audience would have instantly recognized a mention of the Spanish Armada, or something relating to the contemporary troubles in Ireland, which people in a twentieth century theatre might not even notice. Although it must be said that much of what is most important ‘gets across’ quite readily, we can all gain more from a Shakespeare play by deepening our understanding of the text. But, however conscientiously readers follow any textual notes, they will only be adding to their comprehension of words and phrases. There is a broader strategy at work in Shakespeare’s use of language that notes can only hint at. For example, the linguistic style often varies to suit the mood of the moment or the personality of the speaker. Macbeth begins with a heavy, menacing rhythm, a kind of incantation by the witches:
Fair is foul, and foul is fair:
Hover through the fog and filthy air
(Act 1, Scene i, lines 12–13)
which breaks off suddenly and is replaced by a passage full of long, involved sentences of description and explanation. The wounded Sergeant tries to convey in detail to his king the reality of a terrible battle, and the almost superhuman impression that Macbeth’s quality of fighting has made upon him. The Sergeant’s account falters, he breaks off, exhausted, and the scene ends with a mixture of long, rolling lines and short, exclamatory ones. The news seems good: The victory fell on us (Act 1, Scene iii, line 59) says Ross, but the news of Cawdor’s treachery is dismaying