The underlying idea of Confucianism is essentially a reverence for the ruler, the family, and the social relationships, the cult observed by the “superior man.” It is quite distinct, strictly speaking, from the mythology of Taoism with its numerous divinities to health, wealth, stars, rivers, mountains, etc.“All Chinese life is permeated with Taoist fancy; the symbolism of the Chinese depends upon it; Chinese poetry is full of it; all Chinese legend and folklore teems with it. . . . The Buddhist religion had already become a complicated system of ritual and idol worship before it reached China. It was already a mixture of many things, and in China it had little difficulty in mingling into its structure many more.”3 It is difficult to say to what degree the mentality of the Chinese has been saturated and fertilized by Buddhist idealism, but there are everywhere signs of what Buddhism has been to China in the past. The careful observer may discern Buddhist thoughts in the ornamental stonework of an arch-way, the etchings on a metal tobacco pipe, in the countless ideographs of the long vistas of shop-signs, in the reliefs and designs on bronze utensils and chinaware, in the conventional patterns employed for the decoration of silk embroideries and carpets, in pictures and paper charms on house-doors, etc. There are reflections or echoes of Buddhist teachings in the composition of a garden, or the names of certain fruits and flowers. The life and character of the people show signs of Buddhist influences, the speech of the Chinese is interspersed with Buddhist utterances, while their literature and drama abound with Buddhist ideas and expressions.
It has therefore been considered necessary to introduce descriptions of many objects of religious worship into this work, and notices have been given of the principal Buddhist and Taoist deities, together with articles on Confucius and other celebrities. Birth, marriage, and death have also been treated to show the symbolic nature of Chinese ceremonial and its inseparable connection with religious elements. Animals and birds, both mythical and natural, trees, flowers, coins, weapons, etc., have also been examined from an emblematic point of view. The collected material has been arranged alphabetically, with cross references to other relevant articles.
The illustrations have all been drawn for me by various Chinese artists. I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to the following designs, which have been copied or adapted for the purposes of this publication:
From Peking, by ALPH. FAVIER. “Toy pedlar,” “Lama priest attired for worship,”“Swords” (adapted),“Lama devil dancers’ masks,”“Dice and playing-cards,” “House in process of construction,” “Chinese house.” From History of Chinese Pictorial Art, by PROFESSOR H. A. GILES. “A Hundred Colts” (two plates). From The Middle Kingdom, by S. WELLS WILLIAMS.“Ancient anatomical chart,”“P‘an Ku Chi chiselling out the universe” (adapted). From Chinese Music, by J. A. VAN AALST.“Sonorous Stone,” etc. (adapted). From Lamaism, by L. A. WADDELL.“Insignia and weapons of the Lama Gods” (adapted). From Myths and Legends of China, by E. T. C. WERNER. “The money tree.” From Chinese Porcelain, by
W. G. GULLAND. “Diaper patterns” (adapted), “The eight ordinary symbols,” “The eight Buddhist symbols.” From The Mentor, 1st March 1916,“Old Chinese temple rug,”“A plate of willow ware.”
A certain portion of literature, especially books of reference, must always resemble the rambler rose, which has to climb up some protecting wall, rather than the fruit tree, which is supported only by its own firm trunk. Without relying considerably on the recognised authorities and specialists of sinology it would be impossible for any one individual to produce a sufficiently comprehensive record in the brief space of his own life-time. I have accordingly consulted a number of Chinese classical productions, together with the volumes on the shelves of the Chinese Customs Reference Library, and the Libraries of the Peking, Shanghai, Tientsin, and Hong Kong Clubs, as well as the Royal Asiatic Society, etc., in my attempts to bring together the necessary materials relative to the subject in hand. I have been very careful to acknowledge all references to authors from whose works I have actually quoted, and I am deeply indebted to these valuable sources of information. It is possible, however, that I may have inadvertently omitted to specify chapter and verse in a few isolated cases, and, where this is so, I take the opportunity to offer my apologies.
The main object I have kept in view has been to collect, amplify, and arrange some authentic information concerning the fundamental symbolism, in the hope that it may aid in the development of a finer appreciation of the workings of the Chinese mentality and understanding of the people. Moreover, it should also provide artists, designers of costumes and upholsteries, etc., collectors of oriental curios (chinaware, bronzes, rugs, ivory, pictures, and other objets d’art), as well as advertisers of imports and exports, with suggestive ideas of some assistance in the furtherance of their respective interests, while students of Chinese will also be enabled to trace out the significant influence of symbolism on the language and literature of the country.
In conclusion I may say that I do not claim that this volume is an exhaustive encyclopaedia. It is merely to be regarded as a practical handbook of the science of Chinese symbolism as based on the early folklore, with illustrations of typical forms; and, if it serves to any extent as a useful guide, I shall be amply compensated for the labour involved.
C. A. S. WILLIAMS
Customs College,
Peiping, 1st OCTOBER, 1932.
Footnotes
1 Werner: Myths and Legends of China, Ch. IV, p. 93.
2 Li Ung Bing: Geography of China, 1915, pp. 15–16.
3 Clennell: The Historical Development of Religion in China, pp. 78, 106–7.
CHINESE SYMBOLISM
AND
ART MOTIFS
Agriculture
(耕種)
The Chinese have pushed agriculture to a high pitch of perfection with very simple instruments of husbandry. The natural fertility of the soil, combined with the industry of the farmer, are productive of abundant crops of cereals under favourable conditions of weather. The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce has established experimental stations where efforts are being made to improve the culture of the various food products of the soil, and the Nanking Agricultural College has done much to advance modern methods of scientific farming.
The primitive Chinese plough is as ancient as the country, and is without colter or wheel, being merely a share point set in a very rude piece of bent wood, yet it answers the purpose remarkably well. It is generally harnessed to the yellow ox (
Grain culture is of such importance in the national life that the Emperor used to set the example to the people every spring by means of a ceremonial ploughing (躬耕) of “a sacred field with a highly ornamental plough kept for the purpose, the Emperor holding it while turning over three furrows, the princes five, and the high ministers nine.... A monstrous clay image of a cow is carried to the spot, containing or accompanied by hundreds of little similar images. After the field is ploughed it is broken up, and the pieces and small images are carried off by the crowd to scatter the powder on their own fields, in the hope of thereby insuring a good crop.”1 This ceremony, also known as “meeting the spring” (迎春), or “beating the spring ox”(鞭春牛), though no longer carried out by the government officials, is still kept up in some of the country districts, where it is believed that its omission would result in disaster to the crops, and it is held at the period known as Lìchün (立春), which occurs about the 5th February, when the farmers have a holiday.
“A part of the iron of an old ploughshare is sometimes suspended on the outside of the clothing. At other times it is in a silver covering, having only a small part of the iron point projecting, or it is folded up neatly in a paper, and having been put into a small red bag, it is worn about the person.”2 The object is to keep away evil spirits, to whom the sharp