19. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1995), 82.
20. Janet Roitman, “The Ethics of Illegality in the Chad Basin,” in Law and Disorder in the Postcolony, ed. Jean Comaroff and John L. Comaroff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006); and “A Successful Life in the Illegal Realm: Smugglers and Road Bandits in the Chad Basin,” in Readings on Modernity in Africa, ed. Peter Geschiere, Birgit Meyer, and Peter Pels (London: International African Institute, 2008).
21. United Nations, “Peace and Security,” https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/peace-and-security/. See also, Kathleen Staudt, Border Politics in a Global Era: Comparative Perspectives (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018).
22. Henk Van Houtum, “The Geopolitics of Borders and Boundaries,” Geopolitics, 10, no. 4 (2005): 672–679.
23. Oscar J. Martinez, Troublesome Borders (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2006), 4.
24. Jonathan Goodhand, “Epilogue: The View from the Border,” in Korf and Raeymakers, Violence on the Margins.
25. Robert Pallitto and Josiah Heyman, “Theorizing Cross-Border Mobility: Surveillance, Security and Identity,” Surveillance and Society 5, no. 3 (2008): 322.
26. Josue D. Cisneros, The Border Crossed Us: Rhetorics of Borders, Citizenship and Latina/o Identity (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2014); Hastings Donnan and Thomas M. Wilson, Borders: Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State (New York: Berg, 1999); Dauvergne, Making People Illegal.
27. Josiah McC. Heyman, “The Study of Illegality and Legality: Which Way Forward?” Political and Legal Anthropology Review 36, 2 (2013): 304–7; Chad Richardson and Rosalva Resendiz, On the Edge of the Law: Culture, Labor, and Deviance on the South Texas Border (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006); Sharam Khosravi, ‘Illegal’ Traveller: An Auto-ethnography of Borders (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
28. Heather Nicol and Julian Minghi, “The Continuing Relevance of Borders in Contemporary Contexts,” Geopolitics 10, no. 4 (2005): 681.
29. Benedikt Korf, and Timothy Raeymakers, “Introduction: Border, Frontier and the Geography of Rule at the Margins of the State,” in Violence on the Margins, 14.
30. Ieuan Griffiths, “Permeable Boundaries in Africa,” in African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities, ed. Paul Nugent, and Anthony Asiwaju (New York: Pinter, 1996); Timothy Mechlinski, “Towards an Approach to Borders and Mobility in Africa,” Journal of Borderlands Studies 25, no. 2 (2010): 94–106; Roelof J. Kloppers, “Border Crossings: Life in the Mozambique/South Africa Borderland Since 1975,” (DPhil Diss., University of Pretoria, 2005).
31. Achille Mbembe, “At the Edge of the World: Boundaries, Territoriality, and Sovereignty in Africa,” Public Culture 12, no. 1 (2000): 263; Paul Nugent, “Arbitrary Lines and the People’s Minds: A Dissenting View on Colonial Boundaries in West Africa,” in Nugent and Asiwaju, African Boundaries.
32. Ivor Wilks, “On Mentally Mapping Greater Asante: A Study of Time and Motion,” Journal of African History 33, no. 2 (1992): 175–90. For further discussion of precolonial notions of borders and frontiers in Africa, see Igor Kopytoff, ed., The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987).
33. Nugent, “Arbitrary Lines.” See also, Saadia Touval, “Treaties, Borders, and the Partition of Africa,” Journal of African History 7, no. 2 (1966): 279–93; Joseph C. Anene, The International Boundaries of Nigeria, 1885–1960: The Framework of an Emergent African Nation (London: Longman, 1970); Derrick J. Thom, The Niger-Nigeria Boundary, 1890–1906: A Study of Ethnic Frontiers and a Colonial Boundary (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1975).
34. Anthony I. Asiwaju, Western Yorubaland Under European Rule 1889–1945 (London: Longman, 1976); Anthony I. Asiwaju, “The Conceptual Framework,” in Partitioned Africans.
35. Ken Swindell, “Serawoolies, Tillibunkas and Strange Farmers: The Development of Migrant Groundnut Farming along the Gambia River 1848–95,” Journal of African History 21, no. 1 (1980): 93–104.
36. Said S. Samatar, “The Somali Dilemma: Nation in Search of a State,” in Partitioned Africans. For more examples of groups that were divided by colonial boundaries in Africa, see Asiwaju, “Partitioned Culture Areas: A Checklist,” in Partitioned Africans; Feyissa and Hoehne, Borders and Borderlands; William F. S. Miles, “Postcolonial Borderland Legacies of Anglo-French Partition in West Africa,” African Studies Review 58, no. 3 (2015): 191–213; Ghislaine Geloin, “Displacement, Migration, and the Curse of Borders in Francophone West Africa,” in Movements, Borders and Identities in Africa, ed. Toyin Falola and Aribidesi Usman (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2009).
37. William F. S. Miles, Scars of Partition: Postcolonial Legacies in French and British Borderlands, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2014); Saadia Touval, The Boundary Politics of Independent Africa (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1972).
38. For detailed discussions of precolonial borders and walls in the Limpopo Valley, see Innocent Pikirayi, The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira, 2001); Thomas N. Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles: Power and Symbolism in Ancient Zimbabwe (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University, 1996); Mphaya H. Nemudzivhadi, “The Attempts by Makhado to Revive the Venda Kingdom, 1864–1895” (PhD diss., Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 1998). See also, Andrew MacDonald, “Colonial Trespassers in the Making of South Africa’s International Borders, 1900 to c.1950,” (PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2012); Enocent Msindo, Ethnicity in Zimbabwe: Transformations in Kalanga and Ndebele Societies, 1860–1990 (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2012).
39. Patrick Harries, Work, Culture, and Identity: Migrant Laborers in Mozambique and South Africa, c1860–1910 (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1994); Jonathan Crush, Alan Jeeves, and David Yudelman, South Africa’s Labor Empire: A History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Paton, Labour Export Policy.
40. Crush, “Discourse and Dimensions.” The same is true with several other informal economic activities such as smuggling, prostitution and street vending, which often exist outside the official regulatory frameworks. For further discussions, see Peberdy, “Border Crossings”; Janet MacGaffey and Remmy Bazenguissa-Ganga, Congo-Paris: Transnational Traders on the Margins of the Law (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); Itty Abraham and Willem van Schendel, “Introduction: The Making of Illicitness,” in van Schendel and Abraham, Illicit Flows and Criminal Things; Chad Richardson and Michael J. Pisani, The Informal and Underground Economy of the South Texas Border (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012).
41. Roitman, Fiscal Disobedience.
42. David Newbury “From ‘Frontier’ to ‘Boundary’: Some Historical Roots of Peasant Strategies of Survival in Zaire,” in The Crisis in Zaire: Myths and Realities, ed. George Nzongola-Ntalaja (Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1986), 96.
43. Akin Fadahunsi and Peter Rosa, “Entrepreneurship and Illegality: Insights from the Nigerian Cross-border Trade” Journal of Business Venturing, 17 (2002): 402. See also, Donna Flynn, “We are the Border: Identity, Exchange, and the State Along the Benin-Nigeria Border,” American Ethnologist 24, no. 2 (1997): 311–30; Nick Megoran, Gael Raballand, and Jerome Bouyjon, “Performance, Representation and the Economics of Border Control in Uzbekistan,” Geopolitics 10, no. 4 (2005): 712–40.
44.