1) ascertain ______________________
2) assessment ____________________
3) provenance ____________________
4) authenticity ____________________
5) diplomatics ____________________
6) cursive _______________________
7) rustic ________________________
8) chancery _____________________
9) derivation ____________________
3. Find in the text the definitions for the following:
➢ paleography
➢ majuscule
➢ minuscule
➢ uncial
➢ Caroline minuscule
➢ Gothic
➢ Curia
4. Say which words or phrases the pronouns given in bold refer to.
5. Ask questions to the text using these question words:
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
How?
Text 6. Paper
Read the text and do the tasks after it.
Paper is thin material used for writing upon, printing upon or packaging, produced by the amalgamation of fibers, usually vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are subsequently held together by hydrogen bonding. Though the fibers are usually natural in origin, a wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, may be incorporated into paper as a way of imparting desirable physical properties. The most common source of these kinds of fibers is wood pulp from pulpwood trees, largely softwoods and hardwoods, such as spruce and aspen respectively. Other vegetable fiber materials including those of cotton, hemp, linen, and rice may be used.
The word paper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 BC in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC put a drain on the supply of papyrus.
Paper is considered to be one of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, as the first standard papermaking process was developed in China during the early 2nd century. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties of ancient China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo, making them very heavy and awkward to transport. The light material of silk was sometimes used, but was normally too expensive to consider.
It is widely regarded that the Han Dynasty Chinese court official invented the modern method of papermaking from wood pulp in 105 AD. However, true paper without writing has been excavated in China dating to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han from the 2nd century BC. It was used for purposes of wrapping or padding for protection of delicate bronze mirrors. Although paper used for writing became widespread by the 3rd century, paper continued to be used for wrapping and other purposes.
Toilet paper was used in China by at least the 6th century AD. Toilet paper continued to be necessary in China. During the Hongwu Emperor's reign in AD 1393 the Bureau of Imperial Supplies manufactured 720,000 sheets of toilet paper for the entire court produced of the cheap rice-straw paper. For the emperor's family alone, 15,000 special sheets of paper were made, in light yellow tint and even perfumed.
During the Tang Dynasty paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. During the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape. During the Chinese Song Dynasty not only did the government produce the world's first known paper-printed money, or banknote, but paper money which was bestowed as gifts to deserving government officials were wrapped in special paper envelopes.
In America, archaeological evidence indicates that paper was invented by the Mayans no later than the 5th century AD. It was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. In small quantities, traditional Maya papermaking techniques are still practiced today. The paper was thin and translucent, not like modern western paper, and thus only written on one side. Books were invented in India, of palm leaves where we derive the name leaf for a sheet of a book. The first paper mill in Europe was in Spain in1120. Paper was manufactured in both Italy and Germany by 1400, just about the time when the woodcut printmaking technique was transferred from fabric to paper.
1. Answer the following questions:
1) What is a papermaking process?
2) What type of wood is used to make paper?
3) What substances are incorporated into paper and why?
4) What is the origin of the word “paper”?
5) When and where was the modern method of papermaking invented?
6) When and where was papyrus invented?
7) What materials were used for writing in China before paper?
8) What purposes was paper used for in China?
9) What for was paper used during the Tang and Song Dynasties?
10) What types of toilet paper were used by emperor`s court in China?
11) What other peoples made paper?
12) How are the Mayas linked to the papermaking process?
2. Find the English equivalents in the text:
3. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right.
Text 7. Parchment
1. Read the text and translate the words and phrases given in bold:
Parchment is a thin material made from calfskin, sheepskin or goatskin. It is used as a material for writing on, for documents or the pages of a book, codex or manuscript. Parchment is not waterproof. Herodotus mentioned writing on skins as common in his time in the 5th century BC. He stated that the Ionians of Asia Minor had been accustomed to give the name of skins to books. This word was adapted by Hellenized Jews to describe scrolls.
Parchment was developed in the city of Pergamum. Perhaps, the word “parchment” evolved from this name in about 263–241 BC. In the 2nd century BC a great library was set up in Pergamum that rivalled the famous Library of Alexandria. Writing on prepared animal skins had a long history. The earliest of such documents are: a fragmentary roll of leather of the Sixth Dynasty preserved in the Cairo Museum; a roll of the Twelfth Dynasty now in Berlin; the mathematical text now in the British Museum; and a document of the reign of Ramses II. Early Islamic texts are also found on parchment. One sort of parchment was called vellum. This word was used to mean fine parchment. This parchment was made from calfskin.
There was a short period during the introduction of printing where parchment and paper were used interchangeably: although most copies of the Gutenberg Bible are on paper, some were printed on parchment. In the later Middle Ages, parchment was largely replaced by paper. Paper was much cheaper and more abundant than parchment. Parchment is also extremely affected by its environment and changes in humidity, which can cause buckling. Books with parchment pages were bound with strong wooden boards and clamped tightly shut by metal clasps or leather straps.
After being flayed, the skin is soaked in water for about