of ancient Greek, Achaemenid and Chinese origin. For example, there are mentions of Sakas in the Behistun Inscription of Darius I (521-486 B.C.) of Achaemenian Persia as well as Avesta, a set of ancient Iraninan books of the Zoroastrian religion. Some of the information we also find in ancient Greek and Latin sources. The most important among them are data of Herodotus, Xenophon, and latter authors as Arrian, Ptolemy and Strabo. The term 'Tura' is the name by which the Central Asian nomadic tribes were in one of the earliest parts of the Avesta. The Turas are portrayed as enemies of the sedentary Iranians and described as possessing fleet-footed horses. As early as 641 or 640 B.C. the nomads were known in Assyrian sources as the Sakas. Many Greek writers referred to all the nomads of Eurasia, including those of Central Asia, as Scythians; and the Persians designated all the nomadic tribes of the Eurasian steppes, including the Scythians, as the Sakas. These broad classifications were based on the similarity of cultures and ways of life of all the nomads who spoke Iranian languages as the authors of the second volume of History of Civilizations of Central Asia assert
2. The question of the actual distribution of the different nomadic tribes or tribal groups is debatable, largely because of the dearth of written sources. Moreover, it is well to remember that nomadic life characteristically entailed frequent migrations, with the result that different tribes successively occupied one and the same territory. When it is considered that these tribes were culturally very close to one another it is easy to understand why classical writers sometimes associated different tribes with the same historical events. The Saka tribes were contemporaries of the Royal Scythians, who lived in the Northern Black Sea and Dnieper region, and the Sauromatians who occupied the lower Volga region and southern Ural. For our territory very representative sources on the history of Saka tribes, their material and spiritual culture are archaeological monuments – mounds, cave paintings, treasures of the Sakas’ things. Such monuments discovered by scientists in different regions of Kazakhstan. So, judging by the archaeological findings in the first millennium B.C. Semirechye and South Kazakhstan were the center of settling a large group of Saka tribes, according to one hypothesis identical to the Sakas-Tigraхauda. This region on the accumulation of a large number of royal burial mounds in height more than 20 meters is unrivaled in Central Asia and other regions of Kazakhstan. Unique among them is the Bes-Shatyr burial-ground, which is located on the right bank of the Ili River. It consists of 31 burial mounds, of which twenty one are with stone coverings, and ten with the rubble and earth. Most mounds were plundered. But, nevertheless, they contain valuable archaeological material, the most important of which are new types of monumental structures. In the Saka barrows of the Bes-Shatyr burial ground were discovered perfectly preserved large timbered funeral structures. In 1969-1970 by archaeological expedition headed by K. Akishev was found and excavated another large monument of the Saka epoch – the Kurgan Issyk burial mound consisting of 45 tombs. In one of the mounds with a diameter of sixty meters and a height of six meters under the embankment were discovered two burial places – central and lateral. The central grave had been completely deformed by robbers, the lateral – turned out to be undisturbed. In the southern and western parts of the cell is placed tableware in the northern part was the remains of the deceased. On the bones and underneath there were numerous items of adornments of cloths, a headgear and footwear, made of sheet gold. At the buried in a large number were found items of weapons, toilets and numerous utensils. Thus, the Issyk burial mound contains the richest material about the culture of the Sakas. Besides the so-called royal burial mounds on the territory of Semirechye and South Kazakhstan were found burials of common members of the communities of the Saka time. To them belong the Kargaly I burial ground to the west from Almaty city and Altyn-Emel in the Chulak Mountains. The Eastern Aral Sea region is also rich in discoveries of the Saka time – such as the Uigarak and Tagisken burial mounds in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya. In this more arid desert region bodies were placed on cane mats inside light wooden-framed cells interwoven with twigs and canes. Of the items that have been recovered, plagues covered in golden foil, applique clothing and strings on carnelian, turquoise and chalcedony beads illustrate how the deceased were buried. In the Uygarak men wore earrings and the women bracelets and bronze and iron daggers were placed at the feet of both sexes, as well as horse trappings to initiate actual horse burial. A remarkable monument of the steppe part of Eastern Kazakhstan is Chiliktin mound, which was part of a large burial ground of the fifty-one mounds in the form of an earthen embankment. There are no small mounds. It was a large cemetery of tribal leaders and common leaders functioning for centuries. The Chiliktin mound is one of the oldest in Eurasia. There clearly presented applied arts of the Saka tribes. The later stage of the culture of ancient herdsmen of Eastern Kazakhstan is represented with the Berel mounds. Monuments of this type are represented in the well-known Pazaryk mounds of Eastern Altai. The most important of them is the Berel burial ground at the Bukhtarma River. The Big Berel mound in the northern half is occupied with sixteen horses killed for burying. The seventeenth lies next to the sarcophagus-block. The dead horses were placed on a birch bark lining in a certain order. Remains of the horse harness have survived on the horses. In the Big Berel mound apparently was buried a tribal leader. His grave is distinguished with wealth and splendor. The Berel mound provided superb examples of the Scitho-Siberian animistic style. The Horse trappings and weapons reflected the military lifestyle and reverence for nature with numerous fascinating sculpted wooden pierces covered with gold or tin foil.
Archeological sites have been founded on the territory of Kazakhstan seemed to demonstrate cultural uniformity throughout the area. Everywhere burials were found in barrows (kurgans) containing similar weapons, horse trappings and works of art. The choice of motifs and their style – known as the ‘animal style’ – pointed to a uniform cultural pattern. All this helped to give rise to the concept of a single Scythian culture, presented throughout the Eurasian steppes, which had spread from a single Centre and belonged to one tribe or people.
Control questions:
1. Give the characteristics of the Saka tribes archeological data on the territory of Kazakhstan
2. Give the meaning and origin if the term Tura
3. What kind of archeological data support the concept of a single Scythian culture presented throughout the Eurasian steppes
1.3.2. Emergence and evolution of nomadic pastoralism in Eurasian Steppe
The end of the first millennium B.C. and the beginning of our era were a turning point in the history of Kazakhstan. In the economic life of the population of Central Asia and Kazakhstan major changes associated with the invention of iron and the transition to the nomadic way of production. Transition to nomadism allowed humans to settle in the vast expanses. This way of life had existed in the Eurasian steppes for three millennia ahead for many centuries, not only lifestyle, but especially culture. Main factors determining transition to nomadism were physical and climatic conditions and socio-cultural factors. Among scientists, however, there is no consensus about when and why pastoralists in Eurasia passed to nomadism. Some authors believe that the transition of sedentary nomads to nomadism was stipulated by the necessity of developing new spaces with increasing the cattle number (M.P. Grjaznov, K.A.Akishev, K.M.Baipakov). The whole number of researchers adhere to the climatological concept (K.V. Salnikov, L.N. Gumilyov). L.S. Klein sees the main reason for nomadism in the cattle-breeder’s realization of military benefits of the nomadic life. The prominent Kazakh specialist in study of nomadism world renowned N. Massanov considered that G.E Markov’s standpoint was more substantiated. G.E. Markov considered that the transition of pastoral tribes to nomadism was driven by a complex of factors – climatogenic, anthropogenic, socio-economic, political, cultural. A direct incitement according to G.E. Markov was changes in the geographical environment where people in the conditions of climate aridity were not able to feed themselves at the expense of the agricultural economy any longer. As for the time of transition to the nomadic life, scientists are unanimous in the fact that it happened at the turn of the II-I millennium B.C. Among the main factors that led to the transition of cattle-breeders to the nomadic way of life – as the dominant way of production should be distinguished primarily by climatic factors. The vast territory of Kazakhstan being located at the junction of different geographical zones differs with variety of geographical and climatic conditions and is characterized by a number of special features and properties. Geophysically Kazakhstan is mostly a low-mountain plain with vast flat lowlands, elevated plateaus and low-mountain massifs.
