117. Ali ibn Ibrahim of Nishapur, Minaret of Jam, Firuzkuh, c. 1195 (Afghanistan)
118. Keshava Temple, Somnathpur, Karnataka, 13th century (India)
119. Wat Buddai Svarya Temple, Ayutthaya, 13th century (Thailand)
120. Swayambhunath Stupa, Kathmandu Valley, c. 1372 (renovations) (Nepal)
121. Ancient city of Pingyao, Shanxi Province, 14th century and later (China)
122. Old Sukhothai city, Sukhothai, 13th-14th century (Thailand)
123. Old town of Lijiang, Lijiang, c. 1200 and later (China)
124. Kinkaku-ji, also known as the Golden Pavilion, Kyoto, 1397 (rebuilt in 1955) (Japan)
125. Mosque city of Bagerhat, Bagerhat, 15th century and later (Bangladesh)
126. Great Mosque, Xi’an, 8th century, 1328–1398 (important renovations) (China)
127. Jongmyo Shrine, Jongmyo, 1394 (South Korea)
128. Forbidden City, Beijing, 1406–1420 (China)
129. Changdeok palace, Seoul, 1405–1412 (South Korea)
130. Imcheonggak Estate buildings, Beopheungdong, Andong, Gyeongsangbukdo, 1515 (South Korea)
131. Temple of Heaven, Beijing, 1406–1420 and later (China)
Part of a complex of Taoist buildings in Beijing, this great walled temple was erected in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor, who also built the Forbidden City. As the Son of Heaven, the Emperor of China was expected to make regular and public sacrifices, and through the Ming and Qing dynasties successive rulers made twice yearly visits to the Temple to pray for a good harvest. Such rituals followed a rigid order, and their details remained highly secret. The temple complex consists of three major buildings. The central Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, 38 metres tall, is a three-tiered circular building set on a marble base. Its construction is entirely of wood, using no nails. Opposite, to the south, is the smaller Imperial Vault of Heaven, also built on a circular plan. Even further south, accessed by a long stone causeway, is the Altar of Heaven, a three-level circular platform where the Emperor would pray for favourable weather. The complex manifests an elaborate cosmological symbolism in which the juxtaposition of circles and squares represents the unity of Heaven and Earth. Much augmented in the 16th century, the Temple of Heaven was renovated in the 18th century and again for the 2008 Olympics. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998.
132. The Khas Mahal, a palace in Agra Fort, Uttar Pradesh, 1573 (India)
133. Isa Khan Niyazi’s tomb, Delhi, 1562–1571 (India)
134. Lahore Fort, Lahore, 1566 (Pakistan)
135. Madrasa of Mir-i Arab, Bukhara, 1535 (Uzbekistan)
136. Friday Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri, Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, c. 1571–1574 (India)
137. White Heron Castle, Himeji, begun in 1333 (Japan)
The great fortress at Himeji is of the most spectacular of all Japanese castles, which differ in many respects from their European counterparts. The earliest structure on this site, erected by the warlord Sadanori Akamatusu, is said to date from 1333. From 1601 this was extensively rebuilt by Ikeda Terumasu. Set on a natural outcrop, the castle dominates the city of Himeji, west of Osaka, which grew up around its base. Set on a tall stone podium and surrounded by a moat, the castle is extremely well defended: any attacker would soon become lost in a labyrinthine system of concentric walls, terraces, passages, ramps and fortified gates, all the while coming under attack from galleries above. In fact, Himeji was never besieged or damaged by hostile action. Like all Japanese castles, the central keep is built of wood, though this was made fireproof by a coating of thick plaster. The interiors are remarkably comfortable and elegant for a military building. It is known as the ‘white heron’ or ‘egret’ castle because its dramatic composition of flared roofs and white gables suggests a bird about to take flight.
138. Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh c.1570–1585 (India)
139. Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab, 1585–1604 (India)
140. Charminar Gate, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 1591 (India)
141. Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, c. 1616–1660 (Japan)
This sprawling villa was built as a domestically-scaled palace for the Japanese Imperial family. It was intended mainly as a temporary or seasonal retreat for meditation and relaxation, and especially for viewing the natural world at various times of day and in different seasons. The buildings of Katsura offer an exquisitely refined manifestation of the traditional Japanese aesthetic, particularly the rustic sukiye style, as evidenced in the five teahouses on the grounds. Its deliberate restraint, or self-conscious austerity, is characteristic of Zen philosophy. The overall plan of the Katsura complex is irregular and additive, but within each building the floor plan is strictly determined by repetition of the standardised module of the tatami mat. The cedar framing of the palace is left unfinished, allowing an appreciation of the natural qualities of the material as well as its weathering with time and use. The interiors can be transformed through the opening and closing of sliding rice-paper partitions; along with an abundance of terraces and porches, this helps to break down the interior/exterior dichotomy, a characteristic much admired by visiting modern architects like Walter Gropius.
142. Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, 1645 and later (China)
Rising 300 metres above the valley floor, this immense hilltop palace served as the winter residence of the Dalai Lama until 1959, when the fourteenth reincarnation of the Tibetan spiritual leader was forced to flee to India. Begun under Lozang Gyatso, the fifth Dalai Lama, the Palace also served as a seat of government. Copper was poured into its foundations to assist with earthquake stability. Impressively fortress-like in appearance, the Palace’s thirteen stories are set on a tall base of canted stone walls with an average thickness of 3 metres. The central portion, with its puce colouration and golden roofs, is known as the Red Palace, and is devoted solely to prayer and study. In plan the Palace forms a giant rectangle of 350 by 400 metres. It contains over a thousand richly ornamented rooms that house countless shrines and statues. The Potala Palace