2) What are the aims of establishing small firms?
3) What has always been recognized as the best way to preserve competition, prevent monopolistic control of any industries?
4) What facts illustrate the importance of small business?
5) Can you define a small business?
6) What is the most important characteristic of a small business?
7) What criteria are used for defining small business?
8) What terms describe the size of a business?
9) What operations of a small business are subject to review?
2.2.5 Тексты для студентов специальности «Налоги и налогообложение
2.2.5.1 Задание 1. Прочитайте и запомните следующие слова и словосочетания:
tax /levy – налог
levy/impose taxes. syn. to tax – облагать налогом и собирать взимать налоги
tax burden – налоговое бремя
direct tax – прямой налог indirect tax – косвенный налог (на товары и услуги)
personal income tax – налог на доходы граждан/физических лиц
tax-payer – налогоплательщик
excise (duty) – акциз, акцизный сбор
corporation/company tax – налог на прибыль корпорации/компании
tax rate – налоговая ставка
tax base – база налогового обложения
tax administration – порядок взимания налогов, администрирование
social insurance tax – социальный налог
tax revenues – налоговые поступления, доходы от налогов
value added tax (VAT) – налог на добавленную стоимость – НДС
tax – exempt – свободный от уплаты налогов
overall tax intake – общая сумма налогов
eanings – доход equity [‘ekviti] – соразмерность налога доходу
corporate – организация, обладающая правами юридического лица
individual – физическое лицо
depreciation – обесценивание, амортизация
Tax Code – налоговый кодекс
allowance – скидка, льгота
2.2.5.2 Задание 2. Прочитайте тексты А, В, С, D переведите их письменно
Text A. Taxes and Fiscal Policy
In every society governments spend money on, goods and services for people as national defence, public education, transport and others. As a rule, government expenditure spending is chiefly financed through imposing taxes. A tax is money one must pay to the government to support its different programs. Hence, a system used by governments to collect taxes from people and organizations is called taxation. To put it differently taxation is the process by which people pay the expenses carried by the government. With in an economy there exists an instrument which is used to regulate taxation and government spending. This instrument is fiscal policy. Taxes and fiscal policy are actually parts of an economic circle as shown in the figure below:
In the case when government expenditures are exactly equal to tax revenues in a given year the government is running a balanced budget far that year. By increasing or decreasing its spending or taxing programs, the government may reduce or increase demand for goods and services. If the government reduces its own spending, it buys less from businesses, reducing sales and earnings, and people have less money to spend. In a similar way, if the government raises taxes, people have less money to spend. Moreover, spending and taxing policies work together to the same effect. For example, if the government taxes to a greater extent than it spends, it causes reduction in the flow of income to people and businesses. Because this reduces aggregate goods and services, it is a method for fighting inflation. If the government is to increase spending it creates a budget deficit, a situation in which more money has been spent than it is available. Fiscal policy uses budget deficits to promote economic stability and growth. In addition, governments through budget make transfer payments to some members of society. A transfer, is a payment for which no corresponding service is provided in return (в ответ). Examples are retirement pensions and unemployment benefits.
Text B.
Taxation is as old as government. Even the earliest and simplest societies needed some method of maintaining order and providing for justice and those services could not be provided without cost. It is to a greater extent necessary in a modern state: without it, it would not be possible to pay the soldiers who protect us or pay for things that we need just as much as we need somewhere live as something to eat.
But though everyone knows that taxation is necessary, different people have different ideas about how taxation should be arranged. Should each person have to pay a certain amount of money to the government each year? Or should there be a tax on things that people buy and sell? If the first kind of taxation is used, should everyone pay the same tax whether he is rich or poor? If the second of taxation is preferred, should everything be taxed equally?
In most countries, a direct tax on persons, which is called income tax exists. It is arranged in such a way, that the poorest people pay nothing, and the percentage of tax grows greater as the taxpayer’s income grows.
But countries with direct taxation nearly always have indirect taxation, too. Many things imported into the country pay taxes or “duties”. Of course, it is the men and women who buy these imported things in the shops who really have to pay the duties, in the shops. If the most necessary things are taxed, a lot of money is collected, but the poor people suffer most. If unnecessary things like jewels and far coals are taxed less money is collected, but the tax is fairer as the rich pay it.
Countries vary in the balance of their taxation: some rely more on direct taxes while others prefer indirect taxation.
Text C. Types of Taxes
Taxation is very complex, and here we can outline only the most important categories. Thus taxes can be divided into federal, regional and local depending on the area and place of residence. Depending on the way taxes are levied, they are divided into direct and indirect ones.
Text D. Direct Taxes
Direct taxes are taxes paid on income or capital of individuals persons or corporals. The example are personal income tax, corporation company tax on profits, social insurance tax and some other. Indirect taxes are those paid on goods and services, that is when money is spent. Examples are value added tax (VAT) customs and excise duties. Income tax is the most significant countries, it forms the largest part of revenues collected by the government. In Russia the income tax is only 13 % whereas in Britain it usually