clear ethical guidelines – четкие этические принципы
comfort ourselves with the thought – утешаем себя мыслью
ethical conduct – этическое поведение
ethical implications – этические последствия
empower individuals – наделить полномочиями отдельных лиц
evil acts – злые поступки
fluid state – текучее состояние
foster a culture of accountability – воспитывать культуру ответственности
group conformity – групповое единообразие
mitigate their influence – смягчить их влияние
necessary response – необходимый ответ
obedience to authority – повиновение авторитету
path – путь
paved with good intentions – вымощенный благими намерениями
resist evil – противостоять злу
responsibility – ответственность
situational pressures – ситуативное давление
speak out against injustice – высказываться против несправедливости
take steps – предпринимать шаги
threatening situation – угрожающая ситуация
unethical conduct – неэтичное поведение
who fell from grace – кто пал с небес
can be easily swayed – может быть легко склонен
Exercise 8
Fill in the gaps with the correct words or phrases from the list below:
capable
circumstances
evil acts
fluid state
paved
responsibility
resist
can be easily swayed
1. Anyone can be ________ of ________ under the right ________.
2. The path to evil is often ________ with good intentions.
3. Evil is not a fixed trait but a ________ that anyone can enter.
4. Good people ________ to commit evil acts when placed in certain psychological conditions.
5. Individuals have a ________ to ________ evil.
UNIT 8
Beyond the Pleasure Principle by Sigmund Freud (1920)
Key Ideas:
1. Pleasure Principle and Reality Principle:
Humans are driven by a desire for pleasure and avoidance of pain (pleasure principle).
However, reality often necessitates the postponement or moderation of pleasure seeking (reality principle).
2. Death Drive:
In addition to the pleasure principle, there is a fundamental drive toward self-destruction, aggression, and the return to an inorganic state (death drive).
The death drive is not conscious and operates alongside the life instincts (Eros).
3. Repetition Compulsion:
Individuals unconsciously repeat traumatic or painful experiences in an attempt to master them.
This repetition compulsion is driven by the death drive’s desire to return to a prior state of equilibrium.
4. Nirvana Principle:
The ultimate goal of the death drive is to return to an inorganic state of tranquility and nothingness (nirvana principle).
This state is characterized by the absence of tension and conflict.
5. Beyond the Pleasure Principle:
The human psyche is governed by forces that go beyond the pursuit of pleasure.
The death drive and repetition compulsion are examples of these forces that shape human behavior and experience.
6. Primal Conflict:
The conflict between the life instincts (Eros) and the death drive is a primal conflict that underlies all human behavior.
This conflict manifests itself in various forms, such as aggression, self-destructiveness, and the pursuit of pleasure.
7. Civilization and the Death Drive:
Freud argued that civilization is built on the repression of the death drive.
However, this repression is never complete, and the death drive can find expression in destructive and violent tendencies within society.
Best Quotes:
«The course of events in life is directed by two opposing forces, the striving for pleasure and the striving for a goal.»
«Every instinct is a conservative force since it strives for the preservation of earlier states.»
«The aim of life is death.»
Criticism:
Lack of Empirical Evidence: Freud’s theories were based primarily on clinical observations and lacked empirical support.
Deterministic View of Human Nature: Freud’s focus on biological and psychological determinism limited his view of human agency and freedom.
Pessimistic Outlook: The death drive concept has been criticized for its pessimistic view of human nature.
Influence:
Psychoanalytic Theory: «Beyond the Pleasure Principle» is a foundational text in psychoanalytic theory, influencing generations of therapists.
Other Fields: Freud’s ideas have influenced fields such as anthropology, sociology, and literature.
Interesting Facts:
Freud’s daughter, Anna, famously asked him, «Father, why do you write such difficult books?»
The book was originally titled «A Short Account of the Death Drive.»
The concept of the death drive remains controversial and has been subject to much debate.
WORDLIST:
are driven by a desire – движимы желанием
avoidance of pain – избегание боли
reality often necessitates –