The protoroot “ms” formed the Russian word “mezhdu” (between). The origin of the meaning is understandable: any body of water, and especially a river, always divides something: the left bank of the river, the right bank… The river seems to be “mezhdu” (between). In the Greek language, the single root word “meso” (μέσος) – has the meaning of “middle”, “the middle”. From this understanding came the meaning of the word “mezha” (boundary-line), “meso” (meso, mezzo) and the case form “midas” (median, medium, and others).
At some stage, the sound “ms” began to be included in the names and titles of rulers: Ahura Mazda, Gilgamesh, Masra (in Hebrew Mizri or Michri), Ramses, Ahmose, Thutmose, Messiah, Mashiach, Moses, and Monomakh. More recently, the word “tomos” – a verdict, a decree of the ruler, has become popular. There are several versions of how the root “ms” came to mean power. The key to this solution can be the ancient Greek word “pyramis” (πυραμίς) and its case form “pyramid” (πυραμίδος).
10. The protoroots “ai/ay” [aɪ] up
and “ia/ya” down
About the “mountain beginning” say protoroots “ay” [aɪ] and “ya”. They are often found in the names of mountains, ridges or mountain rivers. The combination of the sounds “i” [j] and “a” is formed when we looking up. If a person raises his head at the same time when pronouncing any sounds, then the vowels – first, the “a” sound come out unhindered. But as soon as the trachea bends, interrupting the air, a “y” sound appears. From this movement of the head two ancient protoroots appeared: “ai” is a movement up, “ia” is a movement down. Or simply: “ai”—at the top, “ia”—from top to the bottom.
There is a beautiful example to understand how words appeared in ancient times – this is the English word “ice”, consisting of two roots: “ai” and “s”. The first signified upward movement, the second is water. Where “above” could be water? Only in the mountains, on icy snow-capped peaks. Therefore, the word “ice”—even without translation means “mountain water” frozen on the tops. Protoroot “ai” gave the name of the white [waɪt] color. Where could the ancient people see the white color? Only on the snow-capped peaks of high mountains.
For some peoples, “ai” is the moon. When our ancestors looked at the moon with their heads up, the same “ai” sound was heard. The moon has been worshipped for thousands of years. It may be recalled that the biblical Sarah, born in Sumer, was named Sar-Ai, which meant “the earth watered with water, fertilized under the moon.” Subsequently, in Egypt, Sarah changed her faith, and they began to call her Sar-Ra, where “ra” is the sun.
Toponyms also tell us about the downward movement, when it is a descent from a mountain or deep hollows on the surface of the ground. It is because of the property of swamp bogs to suck people. Because of that the name of Baba Yaga appeared. “Yaga” is “ya-ga” – the way down. Our fabulous grandmother used to be a grandfather – an elder of the tribe – “baba”, whose duties included making a sacrifice. It was one of the oldest traditions of natural (or rather artificial) selection, when sick and unviable tribesmen were sacrificed to swamp fires. Therefore, the ancient Indo-European word “agni” has two meanings: both fire and sacrifice at the same time. Thousands of years later, the familiar “grandchildren” of Baba Yaga, “yag-monas”, “hegemons”, “igimons” and unscrupulous “maniacs” appeared. The name Yahweh also comes from very ancient beliefs, when sacrifice was not so much a cult rite as a condition of survival.
Protoroot “ya” formed words such as yama, yasnyi (clear), yakor’ (anchor), yati (clear), yamega (seam in a sheepskin coat or fishing nets), and others. This protoroot found in the names Yokohama or Rambouillet, but more often simultaneously with protoroot “ay/ai”. For example, Sayans (s-ai-ya-na), Hawaii (ga-v-ai-ya) or our Crimean Aya (ai-ya), literally “up and down”.
11. The most popular ancient protoroot: “kale”, “gale” and “liga”
With the development of language, people have learned to supplement the meanings of individual sounds with other sounds that complement, explain and expand their meaning. This is how stable combinations appeared, forming complex protoroots. Let us consider the combination of the sounds of breathing “ga-ka” – path-road and the soft sound “l’” – beloved, pleasant, comfortable, desirable and even divine.
The combination of “ka-l’” and “ga-l’” meant a favorite, desired, convenient way and marked thousands and thousands of convenient roads, directions and passages. We can see it from Kiel, Calais, Caledonia, Gulf Stream and Calcutta to Baikal and Oklahoma. The toponym was so popular that its meaning “beloved” and “pleasant” began to refer not only to the convenience of roads, but also to other phenomena of life. In the languages of many peoples, you will find an incredibly large number of words forming other, “related” meanings, from the Greek “calligraphy”, “kallistrat” and “kalliope”, the Jewish “kagal”, “Halakha” and “Holocaust”, European “Gauls” and “Celts” [kelts], Asian “Mongols”, “kalmyks” and “karakalpaks” to modern “hall”, “zerkalo” (mirror), “globe”, “klizma” (enema) and “steklo” (glass). Even the name of the famous Huckleberry Finn includes an understanding of the “favorite way”. Special attention can be paid to such ancient word formations as “sickle” (si-kale) – the movement of water, and subsequently grain as a measure of value, the related “shekel” (she-kale) – the movement of grain, and the oldest “gold” – formed from both the measure of value and the secret “da”. Later, “gold” has been the circulation of a yellow metal, gold. Well, the most beautiful, preserved from ancient times, for me is the ancient Greek greeting “kali mero”, which has made its way from the meaning of “good way” to the modern “good afternoon”.
Reading the sounds “ga” and “l’” in reverse order formed the word “liga” (league) with the meaning “the way of the beloved and binding”, “connection/union”. Combining sounds in this order has not lost its participation in the movement. For example, a soldier’s boot with ties in Ancient Rome was called “kaliga”, and the emperor with the nickname “kaliga” was named Caligula. With a high degree of probability, it can be assumed that the word “igo” (yoke) is a distorted word “liga”. A yoke is a rope that binds livestock. It is the same meaning as in the word “liga”. The Tatar-Mongol yoke, or rather (this is my point of view) the “Tartar-Mongol igo” is an association linking farmers (to-ar, to-ar) and nomads (mono-gale). The syllable “go” [gɔ] in the word “gosudarstvo” (in English the word “government” with the same protoroot exists, and in Spanish – “gobierno”) also has the meaning of “unification”, and the Chinese game “Go” is an ancient art of control or government. According to the sinologist Andrey Devyatov, “go” in Chinese means “gosudarstvo” (state). Moreover, in Japanese, the game of “Go” is still called “I-go” [ɪ-gɔ].
12. A combination of breathing sounds
and an aggressive “r” sound: “kr-gr”, “rk-rg” and “pr-rp”
Not all roads were convenient and beloved for our ancestors. There were also difficult and dangerous areas, which, unlike the soft “l’” sound, were marked with an aggressive “r” sound. Why were such roads inconvenient? For example, sharp stones that cut bare feet and broke bones. These were roads littered with broken trees or fallen boulders. It could be a swamp, mountain peaks or hills. Apparently, the protoroots “gr”, “kr”, “rg” and “rk” appeared in such way.
These protoroots formed many toponyms from Greece, Georgia, Crimea and Gurzuf to the usual words: “kremen’” (flint), granite,