Chapter 4 presents the transformer‐based PFCs and gives some baseline examples for comparison with other PFCs in the following chapters. It is shown how a VRT and a PAR may be modeled by using a series‐compensating voltage.
Chapter 5 presents some early PFCs that use mechanical switches and set some baselines for comparison in the following chapters. It is shown how to model a virtual impedance that is equivalent to shunt‐connected and/or series‐connected inductive and/or capacitive compensators.
Chapter 6 presents the evolution of an ST and its wide variety of applications. The most up‐to‐date advancements in ST are described in this chapter. This includes various forms of two‐core designs. Also included is a new factory‐test method under full power.
Appendix A describes the operation of various items, such as (1) three‐phase balanced and unbalanced voltage, current, and power; (2) symmetrical components; (3) d‐q transformation; and (4) Fourier analysis. The reader will find it useful to see the industry techniques and the relevance of the theory and applications.
Appendix B presents the power flow control equations in a lossy line and compares the derived results from those in Chapter 2 for lossless lines. Simpler versions of these equations are derived in Chapter 2, considering the line resistance (R) is zero. These examples will be used as future references for those involved with PFCs. For the readers to recognize the importance of the equations and example solutions presented in Chapter 2, a list of all the “Examples” is placed at the end of Appendix B. Using the information received from Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) about the sending‐ and receiving‐end voltages (Vs and Vr) and active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr), other power flow variables, such as the power angle (δ), can be calculated for a known line impedance (Z = R + jX).
Appendix C presents a load flow study of the Chilean network, integrated with Sen Transformer, performed by Siemens PTI and sponsored by New York Power Authority.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Kalyan K. Sen
Mey Ling Sen
Acknowledgments
We both would like to thank our former colleagues at Westinghouse where the pioneering development of FACTS controllers started in 1990 under the technical leadership of Dr. L. Gyugyi. We are very grateful for all those who dedicated their time to review the manuscript thoroughly and provide valuable feedback. Special gratitude goes to Mr. R. Alexander, Dr. S. Behzadirafi, Mr. J. M. DeSalvo, Dr. M. Haj‐Maharsi, Dr. A. J, F. Keri, Dr. T. Manna, Mr. A. Parsotam, Mr. G. Pedrick, Dr. B. Shperling, and Mr. R. Subramanian. We acknowledge the continuous effort to promote Sen Transformer – a SMART Power Flow Controller technology by Dr. S. Behzadirafi, Mr. A. Ettlinger, Dr. B. Fardanesh, and Mr. G. Pedrick of New York Power Authority, late Mr. M. Henderson of New England ISO, Mr. A. Parsotam of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, Prof. V. Dinavahi of University of Alberta, Prof. R. Gokaraju of University of Saskatchewan, Mr. R. Alexander, and Mr. J. M. DeSalvo. We thank American Public Power Association and Abby Anaday on Unsplash for using their respective photos of Hydropower and Windmill on the coverpage. After performing decades of research on various power flow control technologies, we feel that “the more we learn, the more we realize how little we know.” We appreciate feedback from the readers. Our email addresses are [email protected] and [email protected], respectively.
K.K.S.
M.L.S.
I would like to acknowledge my three professors, in particular, late S. K. Dutta of Jadavpur University for teaching me the basics of power electronics – a new and upcoming subject during 1970–1980, Dr. P. K. Ray of Tuskegee University for giving me a thorough training on how to conduct a basic research, and Dr. A. E. Emanuel of Worcester Polytechnic Institute for perfecting the mold as my PhD thesis Advisor.
Very special thanks go to my two Westinghouse mentors – late T. Heinrich and late M. Brennen whose insights in power electronics were unparalleled. Proper thanks go to Dr. L. Gyugyi who convinced me to change my job from academia to industry, a change that I never regretted. He is the inspiration for my life‐long passion to develop power flow control technologies. I feel fortunate to have worked in the development of FACTS products under his supervision.
Throughout my tenure at Westinghouse Science & Technology Center in Pittsburgh, I had a rare opportunity of working with extraordinary people from all over the world. Not only were they a fine class of engineers, they also had hobbies that could be considered as careers in their own rights. During the long hours of commissioning of the world’s first UPFC in Kentucky and a STATCOM in Texas, and the TNA test in Montreal, the team of engineers kept everyone amused with their life stories. I thank the fine colleagues at the Tennessee Valley Authority, American Electric Power, New York Power Authority, Bonneville Power Administration, Western Area Power Administration, and the Electric Power Research Institute.
K.K.S.
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
All EMTP models that are discussed throughout the book are available in the companion website.
1 Smart Controllers
The future transmission and distribution system is on the way to be dramatically different from what it is today. Today’s Bulk Power System (BPS), referred to as grid, that encompasses mainly electromechanical devices is continuously integrating Inverter‐Based Resources (IBRs) to convert renewable energy sources into electricity. However, most of these sources are solar and wind, which are intermittent in nature. Commercial nuclear‐powered generators, once turned on, deliver electric power continuously for the next 18 to 24 months before stopping for scheduled maintenance and refueling. This difference alone, in two different types of electricity generation, creates a need for a SMART controller that is capable of managing power flow dynamically. A SMART controller will be essential to increase the transmission capacity of the existing system with line impedance management and the needed dynamic performance. This technology will help operators optimize power flows across the grid to reduce voltage stress on the transmission network, reduce line loss, as well as reduce Green‐House Gas (GHG) emissions from traditional carbon‐based generation.
SMART is an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time‐bound. SMART solutions, which have been used for decades in many fields, are well suited for applications in electrical engineering. A controller, also referred to as a compensator, is a general term to describe a regulator that regulates voltage, current, phase angle of a line voltage, resistance, reactance, impedance, and so on, directly or indirectly in an electric circuit.