Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations: Evidence-Based Strategies and Practice. Vincent T. Covello

V. (2009). Effect of risk ladder format on risk perception in high‐ and low‐numerate individuals. Risk Analysis 29(9):1255–1264; Kunreuther, H., Novemsky N., and Kahneman, D. (2001). “Making low probabilities useful.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 23(2):103–120; Lipkus, I.M. (2007). “Numeric, verbal, and visual formats of conveying health risks: Suggested best practices and future recommendations.” Medical Decision Making 27(5):696–713; Peters, E. (2020). Innumeracy in the Wild. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Peters, E., M.K. Tompkins, M.A.Z. Knoll, S.P., Ardoin, B. Shoots‐Reinhard, and A.S. Meara, (2019). “Despite high objective numeracy, lower numeric confidence relates to worse financial and medical outcomes.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116 (39):19386–1939l Peters, E., Västfjäll, D., Slovic P., Mertz C.K., Mazzocco, K., and Dickert, S. (2006). “Numeracy and decision making.” Psychological Science 17(5):407–413; Pighin, S., Savadori L., Barilli, E., Rumiati, R., Bonalumi, S., Ferrari, M., and Cremonesi, L. (2013). “Using comparison scenarios to improve prenatal risk communication.” Medical Decision Making 33(1):48–58; Roth, E., Morgan, M.G., Fischhoff, B., Lave, L., and Bostrom, A. (1990). “What do we know about making risk comparisons?” Risk Analysis 10(3):375–387.

      11 11 See, e.g., Kunreuther, H., Novemsky, N., and Kahneman, D. (2001). “Making low probabilities useful.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 23(2):103–120; See also Kellens, W., Terpstra, T., Schelfaut, L., and De Maeyer, P. (2013). “Perception and communication of flood risks: A literature review.” Risk Analysis 33(1):24–49 .

      12 12 See, e.g., Johnson, B. B. (2004). “Risk comparisons, conflict, and risk acceptability claims.” Risk Analysis 24(1):131–145.

      13 13 See, e.g., Hohl, K., and Gaskell, G. (2008). “European public perceptions of food risk: Cross‐national and methodological comparisons.” Risk Analysis 28(2):311–324.

      14 14 See, e.g., Ames B.N., and Gold, L.S. (1998). “The causes and prevention of cancer: the role of environment.” Biotherapy 11(2‐3):205–220.

      15 15 Inhaber, H. (1978). Energy Risk Assessment. Ottawa, Quebec, Canada: Atomic Energy Control Board.

      16 16 Doll, R., and Peto, R. (1981). “The causes of cancer. Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 66:1195–1308.

      17 17 US Environmental Protection Agency (1987). Unfinished Business: A Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems and Major Risks. Washington. DC: Environmental Protection Agency.

      18 18 Page 140 in Allen, F. (1987). "Towards a holistic appreciation of risk: The challenge for communicators and policymakers.," Science, Technology & Human Values 12(3):138–143.

      19 19 Covello, V., and Allen, F. (1988). Seven Cardinal Rules of Risk Communication. EPA Policy Document OPA‐7‐020. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency .

      20 20 See, e.g., Dickmann, P., Abraham, T., Sarkar, S., Wysocki, P., Cecconi, S., Apfel, F., and Nurm, Ü. (2016). “Risk communication as a core public health competence in infectious disease management: Development of the ECDC training curriculum and programme.” EuroSurveillance 21(14):30188; Bondy, S.J., Johnson, I., Cole, D.C., Bercovitz, K. (2008). “Identifying core competencies for public health epidemiologists.” Canadian Journal of Public Health 99(4):246–251; Joint Institution Group on Safety Risk (2012). Risk Communication and Professional Engineers. Accessed at: https://www.theiet.org/media/1431/risk‐comms.pdf; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Environmental Health Services (2001). “Environmental Health Competency Project: Recommendations for Core Competencies for Local Environmental Health Practitioners.” Accessed at: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/corecomp/corecompetencies.htm; Franziska Baessler, F., Zafar, A., Ciprianidis, A., Wagner, F.L., Bettina Klein, S., Schweizer, S., Bartolovic, M., Roesch‐Ely, D., Ditzen, B., Nikendei, C., and Schultz, J. (2020). “Analysis of risk communication teaching in psychosocial and other medical departments.” Medical Education Online, 25:1. Accessed at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10872981.2020.1746014

      21 21 See, e.g., Holly, K. (2016). Principles of Equitable and Include Engagement. Columbus, Ohio: Kirwin Institute Kirwan Institute for The Study Of Race And Ethnicity, Ohio State University; See also Fedorowicz, M. (2020). Community Engagement during the COVID‐19 Pandemic and Beyond: A Guide for Community‐Based Organizations. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.