Disaster Response and Recovery. David A. McEntire

has been involved relief activities. These community and political organizations donate food, water, clothing, and other necessities of life. They share financial resources and construction supplies with disaster victims and communities. In some cases, these groups may provide translation services for those that have questions about relief programs or cannot read instructions regarding relief applications in English. Civic groups also cover medical expenses that result from disasters or provide massage services to first responders. In addition, these organizations attend to the long‐term needs of victims including crisis counseling, physical therapy, transportation and housing. Some groups address the needs of animals that have been adversely affected by disasters. Others may be interested in preserving books in libraries or artwork in museums that may be or has been affected by disasters. Many individuals will participate in organizations such as Americorps (Simpson and Strang 2004). Others will join the Auxiliary Police, the Fire Corp or Medical Reserve Corp. Thus, the involvement of community groups is broad and far‐reaching. While such organizations are certainly helpful in disasters, they may inadvertently complicate response and recovery activities for others (see Chapter 7). For instance, volunteer groups may start the process of rebuilding neighborhoods before new codes can be passed and enforced. But this does not diminish their extensive contributions when disaster victims are in need.

      Coordination within and among community groups can be enhanced by the Points of Light. This is a foundation dedicated to the promotion of volunteering. It addresses many problems related to poverty, education, gender equality, health and well‐being, water & sanitation, and hunger. However, it is also actively involved in disaster issues. In addition to the Points of Light foundation, the National Volunteer Organizations Active in Disasters (NVOAD) plays an important role in the success of response and recovery (Egan and Tischler 2010). This organization brings such agencies together to collaborate on the provision of assistance after disasters. National VOAD consists of 110 member organizations across the United States that act according to core principles of cooperation, communication, coordination, and collaboration. Members are led by a board of directors, which oversees conferences, task forces and other disaster functions.

      CASE STUDY

      Community Emergency Response Teams

Some of the public are members of Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) (Franke and Simpson 2004). A CERT is a group of concerned citizens that receive some basic training about disasters from local governments (Figure 2‐8). This enables them to care for their neighbors and coworkers after a disaster and buy time until formal assistance arrives. CERTs are different than certain types of nonprofit organizations in that they have no paid employees. They also have a greater interest in disaster issues than many other community groups.

      CERTs first appeared in California in 1985. At this time, it was recognized that first responders would not be able to satisfy all of the needs of survivors who were affected by major earthquakes. Public officials realized that damaged roads, the large numbers of people impacted, and a shortage of trained professionals would prohibit or limit needed care for disaster victims. There was consequently a desire to educate citizens to be self‐sufficient for at least 72 hours after a disaster occurred. The CERT program was accordingly created to provide this type of training to members of the community.

Figure 2‐8 Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) add flexibility to response and recovery operations. After a tornado affected Rowlett, TX, CERT members helped to remove debris. In other disasters, they may fill sandbags, direct traffic or perform other important functions. FEMA.

      Since this time, CERTs have been established around the nation by publicizing training opportunities and accepting applications from interested volunteers. CERTs are often created in areas that deserve special attention. This might include a neighborhood that is located far away from city resources, an elderly community that has unique medical needs, and a community college or university that has a transient population. Participants accepted into the CERT program undergo training that usually consists of several 2½ to 4‐hour classes over a 7 or 8‐week period. Classes address the types of disasters that are to be expected, basic preparedness measures, fire suppression techniques, search and rescue operations, disaster medicine, and disaster psychology. After the 9/11 attacks, more attention was given to terrorism and the special situations that they might generate for response and recovery.

      The training of CERT teams is funded by government grants. This funding may also help CERT members obtain basic equipment such as hard hats, gloves, and other supplies that might be useful in time of a disaster. Because of this federal support, there are now over 2,700 CERT programs in states throughout the nation. The value of CERTs is increasingly recognized by those involved in EM since they may be able to help victims in need and ease the burden on official first responders.

      Self‐Check

       What are nonprofit organizations?

       What are the most prominent nonprofit organizations that are involved in disasters and what do they do?

       What is a faith‐based organization and how do they relate to disasters?

       What are the community groups in your community that could help with response and recovery operations?

       What is a CERT?

       How could CERTs help you as an emergency manager?

       How could the NVOAD assist with coordination?

2.4 Emergent Groups

      All types of people may become involved in a variety of post‐disaster activities ranging from volunteering to the contribution of donations. As an emergency manager, you must be aware that citizens will be some of the first people to respond to disasters when they occur. Generally, they are located at scene of an incident since they are present everywhere – at home, at work, at school, at the grocery store or at the ballpark.

      Citizens fulfill an important niche in response and recovery operations. After virtually all emergencies and disasters, citizens create and participate in emergent groups. Emergent groups are individuals who work together to perform common goals but do not yet have a formalized organization (Stallings and Quarantelli, 1985, p. 84). Put differently, an emergent group is a collection of people that unite for the sole purpose of addressing disaster needs. The people that make up emergent groups become involved in activities that they have never performed before or do not participate in frequently. Emergent organizations are typically disbanded once the emergency situation is resolved. In some cases, however, the emergent organization is formalized and becomes a permanent part of the emergency management organizational landscape.

      Scholars have long recognized the role of emergent groups in disasters. Samuel Prince, a doctoral student at Columbia University, examined an explosion that occurred when a French munitioner ran into a Belgian relief ship in a harbor in Halifax, Canada during World War I. His dissertation is the forerunner of modern disaster sociology. It illustrated that strangers, friends, relatives, neighbors, and even the victims themselves interact to care for the injured, gather the dead, and fulfill other important post‐disaster actions.

      For Example

       Public Response to the Loma Prieta Earthquake

      On October 17, 1989, a massive earthquake shook the cities of Santa Cruz and San Francisco. The earthquake