Through this system, the Achaemenids managed to keep their realm together and to put up an efficient state administration. Yet, further studies will hopefully deepen our knowledge of the Achaemenid language policy.
REFERENCES
1 Ambler, W. (2001). Xenophon: The Education of Cyrus. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
2 Briant, P. (1996). Histoire de l’Empire perse de Cyrus à Alexandre, Achaemenid History 10. Paris: Fayard.
3 Heller, A. (2010). Das Babylonien der Spätzeit (7.–4. Jh.) in den klassischen und keilschriftlichen Quellen, Oikumene: Studien zur antiken Weltgeschichte 7. Berlin: Verlag Antike.
4 Henkelman, W.F.M., Stolper, M.W. (2009). Ethnic identity and ethnic labelling at Persepolis: the case of the Skudrians. In P. Briant, M. Chauveau (eds.), Organisation des pouvoirs et contacts culturels dans les pays de l’empire achéménide, Persika 14. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 271–329.
5 Jacobs, B. (2003). Die altpersischen Länderlisten und Herodots sogenannte Satrapienliste (Historien III 89–94): Eine Gegenüberstellung und ein Überblick über die jüngere Forschung. In R. Dittmann, C. Eder, and B. Jacobs (eds.), Altertumswissenschaften im Dialog: Festschrift für Wolfram Nagel zur Vollendung seines 80. Lebensjahres, Alter Orient und Altes Testament 306. Münster: Ugarit‐Verlag, pp. 301–343.
6 Joannès, F. (1984). Contrats de marriage d’époque récente. Revue Archéologique, 78, pp. 71–81.
7 Joannès, F. (2009). Diversité ethnique et culturelle en Babylonie récente. In P. Briant, M. Chauveau (eds.), Organisation des pouvoirs et contacts culturels dans les pays de l'empire achéménide, Persika 14. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 217–236.
8 Jursa, M. (2010). Der neubabylonische Hof. In B. Jacobs, R. Rollinger (eds.), Der Achämenidenhof – The Achaemenid Court, Classica et Orientalia 2. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 67–106.
9 Rollinger, R., Henkelman, W.F.M. (2009). New observations on ‘Greeks’ in the Achaemenid empire according to cuneiform texts from Babylonia and Persepolis. In P. Briant, M. Chauveau (eds.), Organisation des pouvoirs et contacts culturels dans les pays de l’empire achéménide, Persika 14. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 331–351.
10 Ruffing, K. (2009). Die ‘Satrapienliste’ des Dareios: Herodoteisches Konstrukt oder Realität. Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan, 41, pp. 323–340.
11 Stolper, M.W. (1985). Entrepreneurs and Empire: The Murašû Archive, the Murašû Firm, and Persian Rule in Babylonia, Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch‐Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul 54. Istanbul: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
12 Tavernier, J. (2007a). Iranica in the Achaemenid period (ca. 550–330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords: Attested in Non‐Iranian Texts, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 158. Leuven: Peeters.
13 Tavernier, J. (2007b). The case of Elamite tep‐/tip‐ and Akkadian uppu. Iran, 44, pp. 57–69.
14 Tavernier, J. (2008). Multilingualism in the Fortification and Treasury Archives. In P. Briant, W.F.M. Henkelman, and M.W. Stolper (eds.), L’archive des Fortifications de Persépolis: État des questions et perspectives de recherches, Persika 12. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 59–86.
15 Tavernier, J. (2015). Des Lyciens à Persépolis et Mésopotamie durant la période achéménide (c. 521–331 av. J.‐C.). In R. Lebrun, E. Raimond, and J. De Vos, (eds.), Studia de Lycia Antiqua (Hethitica 17). Leuven: Peeters, pp. 147–174.
16 Tavernier, J. (2017) The Use of Languages on the Various Levels of Administration in the Achaemenid Empire. In B. Jacobs, W.F.M. Henkelman & M.W. Stolper (eds.), Die Verwaltung im Achämenidenreich. Imperiale Muster und Strukturen / Administration in the Achaemenid Empire. Tracing the Imperial Signature. Classica et Orientalia 17, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 337–412.
17 Tavernier, J. (2018). Multilingualism in the Elamite kingdoms and the Achaemenid empire. In J. Braarvig, M. Geller (eds.), Studies in Multilingualism, Lingua Franca and Lingua Sacra, Max Planck Research Library for History and Development of Knowledge. Berlin: Pro Business, pp. 407–420.
18 Tavernier, J. (2020). Persian in official documents and the processes of multilingual administration. In C.J. Tuplin, J. Ma (eds.), Aršāma and his World. The Bodleian Letters in Context III. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 75‐96.
19 Tolini, G. (2008). Les travailleurs babyloniens et le palais de Taokè. ARTA 2008.002, pp. 1–11.
20 Uchitel, A. (1989). Organization of manpower in Achaemenid Persia. Acta Sumerologica, 11, pp. 225–238.
21 Uchitel, A. (1991). Foreign workers in the Fortification Archive. In University of Ghent, Mésopotamie et Elam: Actes de la 36ème Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale: Gand, 10–14 juillet 1989, Mesopotamian History and Environment: Occasional Publications 1. Ghent: University of Ghent, pp. 127–135.
22 Waerzeggers, C. (2006). The Carians of Borsippa. Iraq, 68, pp. 1–22.
23 Wasmuth, M. (2009). Egyptians in Persia. In P. Briant, M. Chauveau (eds.), Organisation des pouvoirs et contacts culturels dans les pays de l’empire achéménide, Persika 14. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 133–140.
FURTHER READING
1 Henkelman, W.F.M., Stolper, M.W. (2009). Ethnic identity and ethnic labelling at Persepolis: the case of the Skudrians. In P. Briant, M. Chauveau (eds.), Organisation des pouvoirs et contacts culturels dans les pays de l’empire achéménide, Persika 14. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 271–329. Provides the reader with a good overview of the ethnic complexity of Persepolis, on the basis of a case study.
2 Jacobs, B. (2003). Die altpersischen Länderlisten und Herodots sogenannte Satrapienliste (Historien III 89–94): Eine Gegenüberstellung und ein Überblick über die jüngere Forschung. In R. Dittmann, C. Eder, and B. Jacobs (eds.), Altertumswissenschaften im Dialog: Festschrift für Wolfram Nagel zur Vollendung seines 80. Lebensjahres, Alter Orient Altes Testament 306. Münster: Ugarit‐Verlag, pp. 301–343. A comparative study of the lists of lands as found in the Achaemenid royal inscriptions and the Greek historiographer Herodotus.
3 Jacobs, B. (2012). Sprachen, die der König spricht: Zum ideologischen Hintergrund der Mehrsprachigkeit der Achämenideninschriften. In R. Rollinger, G. Schwinghammer (eds.), Gegenwart und Altertum: 125 Jahre Alte Geschichte in Innsbruck, Akten des Kolloquiums Innsbruck 2010, Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, N.F. 3. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen, Bereich Sprachwissenschaften, pp. 95–130. Studies the trilinguality of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions from an ideological point of view.
4 Tavernier, J. (2008). Multilingualism in the Fortification and Treasury Archives. In P. Briant, W.F.M. Henkelman, M.W. Stolper (eds.), L’archive des Fortifications de Persépolis: État des questions et perspectives de recherches, Persika 12. Paris: de Boccard, pp. 59–86. Studies the interaction between the various languages used in the Persepolis administration.
5 Tavernier, J. (2020). Persian in official documents and the processes of multilingual administration. In C.J. Tuplin, J. Ma (eds.), Aršāma and his World. The Bodleian Letters in Context III. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Investigates the status of Old Persian within the Achaemenid Empire as well as the language policy of the Achaemenid kings.
CHAPTER 4 Languages and Script
Adriano V. Rossi
The ethnic and linguistic diversity of the Achaemenid oikumene impressed the external observers (the Bible, classic writers). The typical Achaemenid approach to this diversity was condensed in the Old Persian