Hydrogen Damage
Hydrogen can diffuse into metals and alloys from several sources during processing and subsequent service. These sources include the dissociation of moisture during casting and welding, thermal decomposition of gases, and pickling and plating operations. Hydrogen can also be generated from cathodic reactions during corrosion in service and from cathodic protection measures by sacrificial anodes and impressed current.
The effects of hydrogen are well known in ferritic and martensitic steels, where it can diffuse to suitable sites in the microstructure and develop local internal pressure resulting in the characteristic form of hydrogen embrittlement. In low carbon steels, which have inherent ductility, hydrogen may not give rise to cracking but will cause blisters to develop at inclusions. This can lead to delamination in‐plate due to the directional nature of the inclusions. Steels for sour gas service, where the environment contains wet hydrogen sulfide, must have very low sulfur levels or have been treated with additions to control the shape of the inclusions during deoxidation to minimize the danger of hydrogen embrittlement and blistering.
Failure Due to Hydrogen Damage
Failure is time‐dependent and occurs at low rates of strain as the load‐bearing cross section is reduced during slow crack growth in the embrittled region. Susceptibility for embrittlement is higher in alloys with higher yield strengths, i.e. those that are cold‐worked, age‐hardened or in their martensitic form. The sites at which hydrogen is trapped include the original austenite grain boundaries and the interfaces between the matrix and non‐metallic inclusions, for example, manganese sulfides. These then result in both intergranular cracking (with separation at the prior austenite boundaries) and transgranular cracking (flaking or quasi‐cleavage) which is associated with the inclusions. Hydrogen can assist in the propagation of corrosion fatigue cracks and can also cause sulfide stress corrosion cracking in ferritic and martensitic steels, including the stainless grades.
Addressing Hydrogen Damage
The first and foremost method for preventing hydrogen damage is the obvious option of preventing direct contact between a metal and the hydrogen‐containing agent. Controlling the environment during operations such as casting and melting will allow for the exposure to hydrogen to be moderated. Other than preventing exposure, it is also possible to give the metal or alloy a metallurgical treatment, which would serve to reduce the susceptibility of the material to damage caused by hydrogen, chemical means, or otherwise.
Corrosion Damage
Corrosion damage can be apparent in many different ways, including loss of material, surface pitting, and the buildup of corrosion deposits, but it is convenient to classify corrosion by visual observation of the corroded material before any cleaning is conducted. There are generally considered to be eight basic forms of corrosion.
General attack (uniform corrosion)
Galvanic corrosion
Crevice corrosion
Pitting
Intergranular corrosion
Selective leaching
Stress corrosion
Erosion‐corrosion
Although the distinctions between the eight basic categories of corrosive attack have become blurred, particularly when fundamental mechanisms are considered, this classification may help (at least in the first instance) to simplify the analysis. The identification of the factors associated with the forms of corrosion can guide failure investigators. A listing of the most important factors would ensure that engineers with little or no corrosion training are made aware of the complexity and multitude of variables involved.
Temperature can affect the corrosion behavior of materials in different ways. If the corrosion rate is only controlled by the metal oxidation process, the corrosion rate will increase exponentially with an increase in temperature. The higher the fluid temperature the faster the rate of oxidation. Experience shows that corrosion is more pronounced in hot water lines. Galvanic corrosion, also known as electrolysis, occurs when different metals come into contact with each other. Chemical composition of the fluid may have differing effects on the corrosive forces at play. When water velocities exceed 4 ft/s in oversized circulation pumps, installation of undersized distribution lines, multiple or abrupt changes in the direction of the pipe, corrosion may take place. The pH of a solution is also an important factor in the corrosion of materials.
How to Control Corrosion
There are many ways to organize and operate successful corrosion management systems, each of which is asset specific depending on factors such as Design, Stage in life cycle, Process conditions, and Operational history. The corrosion policy provides a structured framework for identification of risks associated with corrosion, and the development and operation of suitable risk control measures.
Corrosion is caused by a chemical reaction between the metal and gases in the surrounding environment. By taking measures to control the environment, these unwanted reactions can be minimized. Sacrificial coating involves coating the metal with an additional metal type that is more likely to oxidize, hence the term “sacrificial coating.” There are two main techniques for achieving sacrificial coating: cathodic protection and anodic protection. The most common example of cathodic protection is the coating of iron alloy steel with zinc, a process known as galvanizing. Anodic protection involves coating the iron alloy steel with a less active metal, such as tin. Tin will not corrode, so the steel will be protected as long as the tin coating is in place.
Another simple way to prevent corrosion is to use a corrosion‐resistant metal such as aluminum or stainless steel. Depending on the application, these metals can be used to reduce the need for additional corrosion protection. Though the application of a paint coating is a cost‐effective way of preventing corrosion. Paint coatings act as a barrier to prevent the transfer of electrochemical charge from the corrosive solution to the metal underneath. Corrosion inhibitors can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating using dispersion techniques. Corrosion inhibitors are commonly applied via a process known as passivation. Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the surface of the metal or the surrounding gases to suppress the electrochemical reactions leading to corrosion. They work by being applied to the surface of a metal where they form a protective film. Cathodic protection (CP) is by far the best way to stop corrosion on pipelines. It uses impressed currents from a fixed anode to interfere with the electrical circuit in the corrosion cell. It is 100% effective against most forms of external pipe corrosion.
Wear and Erosion Damage
Wear and erosion involve loss of material. This may be, for example, because of the absence of adequate lubrication, the rubbing together of components that are supposed to have clearance between them, or from the handling of abrasive materials that impinge on the component that continually removes surface material. In many cases, the presence of debris buildup may provide critical understanding of the specific wear/erosion mechanism involved in the failure. A common wear problem that is encountered relates to bearings, either roller‐element bearings or plain bearings. Features to be looked for include the nature of the damage, for example, overall wear or scores in the bearing surfaces. In the latter case, it is particularly important to identify any hard particles that may be embedded and trapped at the ends