6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 (a) An incident wave on a dielectric half‐space will excite the d...Figure 6.2 The predicted radar cross sections for a slightly rough surface a...Figure 6.3 This series of L‐band images of San Francisco were synthesized fr...Figure 6.4 Sketch showing total absorption (continuous line) and the mean de...Figure 6.5 Penetration depth as a function of frequency for a variety of mat...Figure 6.6 Examples of backscatter cross section as a function of frequency ...Figure 6.7 Dual frequency image of the Black Forest in Germany acquired by t...Figure 6.8 (a) Illustration showing how different surfaces can be separated ...Figure 6.9 Measured backscatter cross section from vegetation.Figure 6.10 Histogram of backscatter data over North America at 13.9 GHz and...Figure 6.11 Behavior of the backscatter cross section as a function of angle...Figure 6.12 Geometry for a linear array.Figure 6.13 Radiation pattern of a linear array.Figure 6.14 Antenna array focused at point P by adding an appropriate phase ...Figure 6.15 Imaging radars typically use antennas that have elongated gain p...Figure 6.16 Temporal and spectral characteristics of continuous wave (CW) an...Figure 6.17 The range resolution of a radar is determined by the pulse lengt...Figure 6.18 Chirp signal (a) and compressed (dechirped) signal (b).Figure 6.19 The compression of a frequency‐modulated signal. The differently...Figure 6.20 Binary phase modulation. When the binary code is indicated by (+...Figure 6.21 Received signals are passed through a tapped delay line with pha...Figure 6.22 (a) The range measurement technique using pulsed radar. Separati...Figure 6.23 Spectrum of pulsed train with increasing Doppler shifts. It is a...Figure 6.24 Generation of a high‐frequency signal by (a) mixing and (b) squa...Figure 6.25 Geometry of a real aperture imaging radar.Figure 6.26 Composite return from an area with multiple scatterers.Figure 6.27 Geometry illustrating the return from two point scatterers A and...Figure 6.28 (a) Exponential, Rayleigh, and Gaussian distributions. (b) Densi...Figure 6.29 The effects of speckle can be reduced by incoherently averaging ...Figure 6.30 Imaging geometry for cameras and radar sensors.Figure 6.31 (a) Distortion geometry in radar images from surface topography....Figure 6.32 Geometry showing the formation of a synthetic array by moving a ...Figure 6.33 Geometry illustrating the range change to a point P during the f...Figure 6.34 Echoes summing in the case of focused (a) and unfocused (b) SAR....Figure 6.35 Doppler history of a point target as the sensor passes by.Figure 6.36 (a) The geometry assumed in traditional SAR processing. The scat...Figure 6.37 Geometry illustrating the range configuration.Figure 6.38 Azimuth ambiguities result when the radar PRF is too low to samp...Figure 6.39 Sidelobes from bright targets (indicated by the arrows in the im...Figure 6.40 (a) Illustration of the sweep SAR concept. (b) Illustration of t...Figure 6.41 Geometry showing the distance to a point target.Figure 6.42 Point target response.Figure 6.43 This figure illustrates how the rectangular SAR processing algor...Figure 6.44 A polarimetric radar is implemented by alternatively transmittin...Figure 6.45 Polarization responses of trihedral corner reflector. These devi...Figure 6.46 Basic interferometric radar geometry. The path length difference...Figure 6.47 This figure shows how the topography of a scene is expressed in ...Figure 6.48 The rate at which the interferometric phase changes from pixel t...Figure 6.49 A sinusoidal surface with spatial wavelength Λ is tilted toward ...Figure 6.50 Interferometric SAR processing geometry. The scatterer must be a...Figure 6.51 (a) Along‐track interferometry imaging geometry. (b) Interferogr...Figure 6.52 Three‐pass differential interferometry imaging geometry. The sur...Figure 6.53 An illustration of differential interferometry. A deformation si...Figure 6.54 UAVSAR image of the Holitna river located in southwest Alaska, p...Figure 6.55 Block diagram of the SIR‐A radar.Figure 6.56 The photograph on the top left shows the SRTM mast and canister ...Figure 6.57 (a) Shaded relief map of California derived from SRTM C‐band rad...Figure 6.58 Examples of sentinel C‐band SAR data. (a) Farmland in Brazil usi...Figure 6.59 (a) SkyMed X band SAR image of the deeply eroded Richat dome. It...Figure 6.60 Illustrative example of DEM data (where color represents height)...Figure 6.61 Examples of Venus images acquired with the Magellon Radar. (a) M...Figure 6.62 Examples of Cassini Radar images of Titan: (a) sand dunes in the...Figure 6.63 Brightness temperature from Saturn. The upper image is the colle...Figure 6.64 A comparison of images of the Safsaf Oasis area in south central...Figure 6.65 Seasonal images of the Price Albert area in Canada. Both images ...Figure 6.66 Seasonal images of the Amazon rain forest near Manaus, Brazil. B...Figure 6.67 The polarization responses for three different areas in the San ...Figure 6.68 The image on the left shows the HH‐VV phase difference for the S...Figure 6.69 Three frequency images of a portion of the Black Forest in Germa...Figure 6.70 Deformation signals measured at C‐band following the M 6.1 Eurek...Figure 6.71 (a) Observed and predicted deformation signals on Darwin volcano...Figure 6.72 (a) Two interferograms over the Ryder Glacier in Greenland acqui...Figure 6.73 (a) Seasat image of ocean internal waves in the Gulf of Californ...Figure 6.74 Seasat image of polar ice floes near Banks Island (lower right c...Figure 6.75 Radar backscatter (left) and along‐track interferometric phase (...Figure 6.76 σ versus wind speed for constant incidence angles and wind ...Figure 6.77 Different scatterometer configurations. (a) Side‐looking fan bea...Figure 6.78 SASS iso‐Doppler lines projected on the surface. The tilt of the...Figure 6.79 SASS measurement geometry.Figure 6.80 SASS block diagram.Figure 6.81 SeaWinds instrument imaging geometry. The left image shows rotat...Figure 6.82 Image swaths acquired by the SeaWinds instrument over a 24 hour ...Figure 6.83 Backscatter data near typhoon Carmen for near vertical incidence...Figure 6.84 (a) Wind patterns over the Pacific for July 1978 derived from the...Figure 6.85 Resolution‐enhanced image of Antarctica using data acquired on O...Figure 6.86 Altimeter measurement geometry.Figure 6.87 Types of altimeter: (a) beam limited and (b) pulse limited.Figure 6.88 Seasat altimeter major functional elements.Figure 6.89 Sea level relative to Mean (1993–2019) for the Pacific Ocean on ...Figure 6.90 Global sea level change over 26 years (1993–2019) derived from m...Figure 6.91 Sea surface height over two trenches measured with the Seasat al...Figure 6.92 Sea surface height over a sea mount as measured with the Seasat ...Figure 6.93 Significant wave height and backscatter measurement over hurrica...Figure 6.94 Imaging altimeters (a) using a scanning antenna beam or (b) spin...Figure 6.95 Map of the surface of Venus generated from the PVO radar data. S...Figure 6.96 The WSOA instrument concept integrated with the Jason altimeter ...Figure 6.97 A comparison of the coverage between the TOPEX/POSEIDON conventi...Figure 6.98 Radar (bottom) and LandSat (top) images of an area in southweste...Figure 6.99 Example of electromagnetic sounding of the Antarctic ice sheet f...Figure 6.100 Example of radar sounding of the Martian polar cap.Figure 6.101 Example of radar sounding of the Titan lakes.
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Sketch illustrating the geoid, the reference ellipsoid, the geoid...Figure 7.2 Phase velocity of ocean surface waves as a function of their wave...Figure 7.3 A wave with phase speed Vp and direction ψ will be in resona...Figure 7.4 Global ocean surface average topography derived from the Seasat a...Figure 7.5 Successive Seasat altimetric profiles (left) along the tracks sho...Figure 7.6 Comparison showing the advances in the estimates of the mean sea ...Figure 7.7 Comparison of gravity anomaly models before the GRACE mission (le...Figure 7.8 (a) Ocean height change derived from Topex and Jason series missi...Figure 7.9 (a) Geometry showing the pulse footprint spread on the surface. (...Figure 7.10 Examples of echo shapes from the ocean surface with different wa...Figure 7.11 Global measurement of surface wave height derived from the echo ...Figure 7.12 Wind speed measurement derived from satellite altimeter compared...Figure 7.13 Global wind speed measurement derived from the TOPEX/POSEIDON al...Figure 7.14 This figure shows sea surface height anomalies measured by the T...Figure 7.15 Global ionospheric total electron content measurement derived fr...Figure 7.16 Global atmospheric water vapor distribution derived from the TOP...Figure 7.17 Variation of σ as a function of wind speed for different va...Figure 7.18 Variation of σ with azimuth at constant wind speed.Figure 7.19 Average global winds derived from the Seasat scatterometer for S...Figure 7.20 SeaWinds measurements of the winds associated with Hurricane Fra...Figure 7.21 SeaWinds measurements of the global wind stress for September 2,...Figure 7.22 Nadir backscatter return measured with the Seasat scatterometer ...Figure 7.23 Changes of σ from one side of a swell to the other as a fun...Figure 7.24 The phase history of a point target is determined by the instant...Figure 7.25 Surface waves refracting and defracting around Shetland Island (...Figure 7.26 Internal waves in the Gulf of Baja near the island of Angel de l...Figure 7.27 Nantucket Shoals