Table 2.1 (2)
Row head “male” under the row titled, “sex” is termed as units. [Comment: UNITS: Units refer to how the data are reported. They could be in percentages, in number per 100 or 1,000, or in other units. In this table, the data are reported first in raw number in thousands and then in percentages.]
The row with head, “white superscript 2,” [Comment: Facts from the table: After reviewing all this information, the reader is ready to make some interpretations about what the data mean. In this table, the reader might note that young adults are more likely to have a college education than older citizens, though those in the middle age bracket are more likely to have graduate degrees. In addition, people with Asian backgrounds have the highest levels of education. What other interesting patterns do you see?]
Source given under the table reads, “U.S. Census Bureau (2017).” [Comment: SOURCE: The source note, found under the table, points out the origin of the data. It is usually identified by the label “Source.” Under this table, the source note says “U.S. Census Bureau (2017).”]
Column head. “Associate’s Degree” has a superscripted 1 and row heads, “White” and “Black” are superscripted, indicating the footnotes given at the end of the table. Footnote 1: Includes vocational degrees, footnote 2: For persons who selected this race group only. [Comment: Footnotes: Some tables have footnotes, usually indicating something unusual about the data or where to find more complete data. In this table, two footnotes are provided so that the reader does not make mistakes in interpretation.]
Part II Social Structure, Processes, and Control
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Picture a house. First, there is the foundation, then the wood frame, and then the walls and roof. This provides the framework or structure. Within that structure, activities called processes take place—electricity to turn on lights and appliances, water to wash in and drink, and people to carry out these processes. If something goes wrong in the house, we take steps to control the damage and repair it.
Now compare that picture of a house with a society. The social structure of a society, its groups and organizations, is the framework of society. The social processes are the dynamic activities of society that take place within those structures. This section begins with a discussion of the structure of society, followed by the processes of culture and socialization through which individuals are taught cultural rules—how to live effectively within their society’s structure. Although socialization of individuals takes place primarily at the micro level, we explore its implications at the meso and macro levels as well.
If we break the social structure into parts, such as the wood frame, walls, and roof of a house, it is the groups and organizations (including large organizations, or bureaucracies) that are parts of the social structure. To work smoothly, these organizations depend on people’s loyalty so that the participants do what society and its groups need to survive. However, these components do not always work well together. Things break down. Leaders in societies try to control disruptions and deviant individuals in order to maintain their control of social structures, whatever their goals may be.
As we explore the next few chapters, we continue to examine social life at the micro, meso, and macro levels, for as individuals we are profoundly shaped by social processes and structures at larger and more abstract levels, all the way to the global level.
Chapter 3 Society and Culture Hardware and Software of Our Social World
▲ Depending on what resources are available where we live and what is considered usable and edible, we put something out to eat. It might be a juicy hamburger, dog meat, or bugs. What we consider food is influenced by the organization of food production, distribution, technology, and the culture—ideas about what is edible. In the opening photo, an international market is bustling with activity as people shop for the kinds of foods considered nutritious and tasty in their culture.
© iStock.com/Christian Mueller
What Will You Learn in This Chapter?
This chapter will help you to do the following:
3.1 Describe the structure (the “hardware”) of our social world
3.2 Illustrate how culture affects individuals, groups, and societies
3.3 Provide examples of microcultures, subcultures, countercultures, and global cultures
3.4 Compare key ideas in the symbolic interactionist, functionalist, and conflict perspectives on culture
3.5 Explain why culture (the “software”) from one society does not always “fit” with the structure (“hardware”) of another society
What is considered edible, even delectable, to people in one society may be repulsive to those in another. Taste and how people eat differ greatly, depending on the culture in which one lives and what is available in that culture.
Mrs. Ukita, the mom in the Ukita family, rises early to prepare a breakfast of miso soup and a raw egg on rice. The father and two daughters eat quickly and rush out to catch their early morning trains to work and school in Kodaira City, Japan. The mother cares for the house; does the shopping; and prepares a typical evening meal of fish or meat, vegetables, and rice for the family.
The Ahmed family lives in a large apartment building in Cairo, Egypt. The 12 members of the extended family include the women who shop for and cook the food: vegetables, including peppers, greens, potatoes, squash, and tomatoes; garlic, onions, and spices; and rice, along with pita bread and often fish or meat. The adult men work in shops in one of the many bazaars, while the school-age children attend school and then help with the chores.
At the Aznaq and Za’atan refugee camps in Jordan, Syrian refugees face food insecurity. Some refugee families who are registered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees receive cash vouchers to buy limited amounts of food available. Other families receive weekly rations with bare essentials for existence. Sometimes shipments of food are not possible due to hostilities, and people go hungry.
The Walker family from Norfolk, Virginia, grabs dinner at a fast-food restaurant on their way to basketball practice and an evening meeting. Because of their busy schedules and individual activities, they cannot always find time to cook and eat together—a behavior that would be unthinkable in most societies around the world.
Although most diets include some form of grain and starch, locally available fruits and vegetables, and perhaps meat or fish, broad variations in food consumption exist even within one society. Yet all of these differences have something in common: Each represents a society with a unique culture that includes growing or buying food, preparing and eating it, storing food, and cleaning up after eating. Food preparation is only one aspect of our way of life, common for all humans and necessary for survival. Ask yourself why you sleep on a bed, brush your teeth, or listen to music with friends. Our way of life is called culture.
Culture refers to the way of life shared by a group of people—the knowledge, beliefs, values, rules or laws, language, customs, symbols, and material products (such as food,