Challenges in Implementing Cross-Linguistic LLSI
General Considerations for Developing LLSI
Developing a Cross-Linguistic Programme of LLSI: A Step-by-Step Guide
Conclusion
6An In-Depth Exploration of Patterns of Strategy Development in Foreign Language and First Language Writing
Performance in Writing Tasks
Pre-Task Planning
Problem Solving While Writing
Evaluation of Written Work
Errors and Error Correction
Conclusion
7Exploring the Cross-Linguistic Transfer of Strategies
The Phenomenon of Cross-Linguistic Transfer
Evidence of Strategy Transfer from the X-LiST Study
Multiple Directionalities of Transfer
Conclusion
8Negotiating Language Learning Strategy Instruction: Individual Trajectories
The Strategic Writer (Carissa)
The Experimenter (Chris)
The Struggling Writer (Zoe)
The Multilingual Writer (Mei)
Conclusion
9The Role of Learners’ Individual Differences
The Symbiotic Relationship between Proficiency and Strategy Use
The Importance of Metacognitive Engagement
Attitudes towards Writing
Strategic Multilingualism
Conclusion
10Reflecting Back and Looking Forward: Implications and Conclusions
Revisiting the Key Questions
Limitations of the X-LiST Study
Implications for Research and Practice
Looking Forward: Areas for Future Research
Final Reflections
Appendix A: Student Questionnaire
Appendix B: Writing Strategy Task Sheet (Carissa, German Task 2)
References
Subject Index
Author Index
Some say that raising a child takes a village, and I think the same can probably be said for writing a book! This has been a long time in the making, and the PhD study on which this book is based would never have happened without the unwavering support and wisdom of my long-suffering supervisor, colleague, mentor and friend, Linda Fisher. The fact that it was ultimately turned into a book is largely down to the encouragement of Michael Evans. Thank you both! I am also incredibly grateful to the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this project.
Thank you also to Yongcan Liu and to all of my current and former students who have acted as sounding boards for ideas over the years. And, of course, to my mum and dad for their constant encouragement and understanding.
I would also like to give special thanks to the anonymous reviewer for their incredibly valuable suggestions and to the wonderful team and series editors at Multilingual Matters for all of their guidance and patience and for making this process so smooth.
And most of all, I am indebted to the superb teachers and students who so willingly agreed to take part in this study – this would not have been possible without you.
Thank you also to De Gruyter for permission to build on aspects of the following paper in this book:
Forbes, K. and Fisher, L. (2020) Strategy development and cross-linguistic transfer in foreign and first language writing. Applied Linguistics Review 11 (2), 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2018-0008
This book also draws on aspects of the following studies published under a Creative Commons Attribution license:
Forbes, K. (2018) ‘In German I have to think about it more than I do in English’: The foreign language classroom as a key context for developing transferable metacognitive strategies. In Å. Haukås, C. Bjørke and M. Dypedahl (eds) Metacognition in Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 139–156). Abingdon: Routledge.
Forbes, K. (2019a) Teaching for transfer between first and foreign language classroom contexts: Developing a framework for a strategy-based, cross-curricular approach to writing pedagogy. Writing and Pedagogy 11 (1), 101–126. doi:10.1558/wap.34601
Forbes, K. (2019b) The role of individual differences in the development and transfer of writing strategies between foreign and first language classrooms. Research Papers in Education 34 (4), 445–464. doi:10.1080/02671522.2018.1452963
Wer fremde Sprachen nicht kennt, weiß nichts von seiner eigenen.
Those who know nothing of foreign languages,
know nothing of their own.
Goethe
The above quote by Goethe is one that has resonated with me in various ways over the years, first as a language learner, then as a secondary school teacher and more recently as a researcher. It seems to encapsulate the essence of the various reflections and experiences, both personal and professional, that ultimately led to the research at the heart of this book. I remember ‘discovering’ language only when I started to learn French at age 11. That may sound strange given that I had been a reasonably fluent speaker of English for many of those 11 years, but I had never thought about ‘my’ language in such an explicit way before – I simply took it for granted. At age 18, I remember sitting in my first linguistics lecture at university when we were told that on Mondays the focus would be on English language and grammar. As one of the few native English speakers in the room I sat back smugly thinking this would be easy, but when the first question was asked and dozens of hands shot up around me, I slumped down in my seat and realised just how little I knew. Later, as a teacher of French and Spanish in a secondary school in England, I thought a lot about how we position ‘language’ in schools and the great chasm that seems to exist between how we engage with and teach the first language (L1) versus foreign languages (FL). I had many a heated debate with my English teacher friend who insisted that I was the language teacher whereas she identified herself primarily as a teacher of literature. Yet, I always instinctively felt that, for me, learning French, German and Spanish in school made me a better speaker, writer and user of English. As I moved into educational research I looked for evidence to support this; yet, while there is a substantial body of work on how the L1 can transfer to or interfere with learning additional languages, there are fewer empirical studies that explore the potential positive effects that learning a second language (L2) or FL in school may have on the first.
The above reflections are purely anecdotal; however, they have far wider implications in the current climate of FL education in England and beyond. While the learning of English as an L2/FL is booming in many countries around the world and represents around a $50 billion a year industry (Statista, 2019), FL learning in Anglophone countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand has been in steady decline in recent years. Languages