Graphite or plumbago, commonly but improperly called black lead, occurs extensively in primitive and transition rocks; from that which is obtained in New York, excellent pencils have been made. There are also numerous localities of petroleum, or mineral oil. It usually floats on the surface of springs, which in many cases are known to be in the vicinity of coal. It is sometimes called Seneca or Gennessee oil. In Kentucky, it occurs on a spring of water in a state sufficiently liquid to burn in a lamp; it is collected in considerable quantities.
Salt appears to be abundant in the United States, but it has not been found in the mass. It is principally obtained from the springs which have been noticed in another part of the work. Professor Eaton has suggested doubts whether masses of salt really exist. He conceives that an apparatus for the spontaneous manufacture of salt may be found within the bosom of the earth, in those rocks which contain the necessary elements, and in this opinion he is supported by experiment. Subsequently, however, Mr. Eaton had reason to think that salt has existed in a solid state in cubical crystals, the hollow forms of which he discovered abundantly in the lias and saline rocks of the west, and it seems still to be highly probable that masses of salt exist in the neighborhood of the salt springs. The brine contains, besides the muriate of soda, a considerable proportion of muriate of lime and magnesia. Recently, also, bromine has been detected in the brine of salina, by Dr. Silliman. Saltpetre is abundant in the west, being found in numberless caves along the Missouri; and the shores of the Arkansas are almost covered with nitre. The testimony of Mr. Schoolcraft, in relation to the recent formation of quartz crystals, is very striking. They have been found, it appears, upon the handle of a spade, and the edge of some old shoes, which had been left for some years in an abandoned lead mine of the Shawnee Mountains. Crystals of great beauty and dimensions have been found in numerous localities. Many minerals which are rare in Europe, are found abundantly, and often in finer forms, in the United States; some, which have subsequently been detected elsewhere, were first discovered here, and not a few may still be claimed as the peculiar treasure of our country.
GENERAL REMARKS ON MINERALS.
It is observed by Dr. Mead, that a general resemblance can be traced between the minerals of North America, and those which have been found in the north of Europe, particularly in Norway and Sweden. This resemblance is stated to exist, not merely in the properties of the minerals themselves, but in the geological character, and geognostic situation throughout the whole series. It is observed more particularly in those specimens which are found to accompany the primitive formation at Arendal, in Norway; it is not confined, however, to the primitive range of mountains alone, as the same resemblance can be frequently traced, on comparing American minerals with those of Piedmont, and even of the Hartz Mountains. Among the principal minerals of the north of Europe, there are none of more importance than the ores of iron for which Norway and Sweden are so remarkable; and every variety of this mineral which has been met with there, has been found in the same class of rocks in America in the greatest abundance, and of equally good quality. Titanium is one of those metals which have been found more particularly in the north of Europe. It is said to occur frequently in those primitive aggregates which contain beds of magnetic iron ore, associated with augite, scapolite, epidote and hornblende, precisely the same rocks in which we find it in this country. There is scarcely any part of Europe where a greater variety of augites are found than in Norway and Sweden; nor can there be any class of minerals in which the similitude between the specimens from those countries and America is more striking.
Mineralogy, considered as a pure science, is of very recent date. Early observations related merely to the usefulness of minerals to the purposes of society, and it was not before the lapse of many ages that they came to be investigated on account of their great variety, and the beautiful arrangements of which they are susceptible. No attempt was made to classify them before the introduction of alchemy into Europe by the Arabians; and to Avicenna belongs the merit of the first arrangement. He divided minerals into stones, metals, sulphurous fossils, and salts. In 1774, Werner published his great work on the External Properties of Minerals, which was of eminent service in first calling the attention of naturalists to the only correct method of arriving at a knowledge of this department of nature. The study of minerals has received considerable attention during the last twenty years in the United States.
CHAPTER XVI.—ANIMALS.
I. QUADRUPEDS.
The Black Bear (ursus Americanus) is found in considerable numbers in the northern districts of America. In size and form he approaches nearest to the Brown Bear; but his color is a uniform shining jet black, except on the muzzle, where it is fawn colored; on the lips and sides of the mouth it is almost gray. The hair, except on the muzzle, is long and straight, and is less shaggy than in most other species. The forehead has a slight elevation, and the muzzle is elongated, and somewhat flattened above. The young ones, however, are first of a bright ash color, which gradually changes into a deep brown, and ends by becoming a deep black.
Black Bear.
The American Black Bear lives a solitary life in forests and uncultivated deserts, and subsists on fruits, and on the young shoots and roots of vegetables. Of honey he is exceedingly fond, and as he is a most expert climber, he scales the loftiest trees in search of it. Fish, too, he delights in, and is often found in quest of it on the borders of lakes and on the seashore. When these resources fail, he will attack small quadrupeds, and even animals of some magnitude. As, indeed, is usual in such cases, the love of flesh in him grows with the use of it.
As the fur is of some value, the Indians are assiduous in the chase of the creature which produces it. ‘About the end of December, from the abundance of fruits they find in Louisiana and the neighboring countries, the bears become so fat and lazy that they can scarcely run. At this time they are hunted by the American Indians. The nature of the chase is generally this: the bear chiefly adopts for his retreat the hollow trunk of an old cypress tree, which he climbs, and then descends into the cavity from above. The hunter, whose business it is to watch him into this retreat, climbs a neighboring tree, and seats himself opposite to the hole. In one hand he holds his gun, and in the other a torch, which he darts into the cavity. Frantic with rage and terror, the bear makes a spring from his station; but the hunter seizes the instant of his appearance, and shoots him.’
The black bear, says Godman, like all the species of this genus, is very tenacious of life, and seldom falls unless shot through the brain or heart. An experienced hunter never advances on a bear that has fallen, without first stopping to load his rifle, as the beast frequently recovers to a considerable degree, and would then be a most dangerous adversary. The skull of the bear appears actually to be almost impenetrable, and a rifle ball, fired at a distance of ninety-six yards, has been flattened against it, without appearing to do any material injury to the bone. The best place to direct blows against the bear is upon his snout; when struck elsewhere, his dense woolly coat, thick hide, and robust muscles, render manual violence almost entirely unavailing.
When the bear is merely wounded, it is very dangerous to attempt to kill him with such a weapon as a knife or tomahawk, or indeed any thing which may bring one within his reach. In this way hunters and others have paid very dearly for their rashness, and barely escaped with their lives; the following instance may serve as an example of the danger of such an enterprise:
‘Mr. Mayborne, who resides in Ovid township, Cayuga county, between the Seneca and Cayuga lakes, in the state of New-York, went one afternoon through the woods in search of his horses, taking with him his rifle and the only load of ammunition he had