Executive Policymaking. Andrew Rudalevige

Reynolds, “There Might Not be a Government Shutdown this Year” (Washington: Brookings, September 19, 2018).

73. All data from James V. Saturno and Jessica Tollestrup, “Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and Recent Practices,” Congressional Research Service (January 14, 2016).

74. Chris Cillizza, “2,322 Reasons to Hate Congress (Washington: CNN Politics, March 22, 2018).

75. On the costs of continuing resolutions and shutdowns, see the compelling analysis by Phillip Joyce in “The Costs of Budget Uncertainty: Analyzing the Impact of Late Appropriations” (Washington: IBM Center for the Business of Government, 2012), p. 9.

76. Well into the 2018–2019 shutdown, OMB Director and Acting White House Chief of Staff Mick Mulvaney said, “I found out for the first time last night that the person who technically shuts the government down is me, which is kind of cool.” Veronica Stracqualursi, CNN, “White House Budget Director: ‘Kind of Cool’ to be in Charge of Government Shutdown,” January 21, 2018.

77. For an analysis of OMB’s role in the shutdown process, see chapter 4 in this volume.

78. Congressional Budget Office, “The Effects of the Partial Shutdown Ending in January 2019,” January 2019; Niall McCarthy, “The Government Shutdown Cost the U.S. Economy $11 Billion,” Forbes, January 30, 2019.

79. James Carter and Robert Bixby, “The Debt Limit is the Nation’s Appendix—Get Rid of It,” The Hill (October 12, 2017).

80. Congressional Research Service, “The Debt Limit Since 2011” (December 20, 2018).

81. Email from Stevens Redburn, who was a career professional in OMB until he retired in 2006.

82. “Present Trends and the Evolution of Mandatory Spending,” Congressional Research Service (January 31, 2017), name of author redacted.

83. Congressional Research Service, “The Federal Budget: Overview and Issues for FY 2019 and Beyond” (May 21, 2018), p. 7 (author name redacted).

84. Email to the author. Kathleen Peroff, winner of four presidential rank awards, was deputy associate director of the National Security Division of OMB from 2000 to 2013.

85. OMB, Historical Tables, “Table 1.2: Summary of Receipts, Outlays, and Surpluses or Deficits as Percentages of GDP, 1930–2025,” www.whitehouse.gov/omb/historical-tables/.

86. Government Accountability Office, “The Nation’s Fiscal Health” (June 2018), GAO-18-299SP.