Figure 1.4 Table from the 1968 solid‐state review by Bent.
Source: From Bent [17]. © 1968 American Chemical Society.
Experimentally, the gas phase behavior of dihalogen bonding adducts with various Lewis bases was extensively studied by Legon using rotational microwave spectroscopy in the late 1980s and through the 1990s [51,52]. They acknowledged the similarities between the hydrogen and halogen bond geometries in the gas phase but noted the distinct linearity of the latter. The study of these complexes in the gas phase revealed structural parallels to the solid state, reinforcing that halogen bond contacts were not a byproduct of lattice effects.
Contributing to the collection of halogen bonding data during this time were notable theoretical studies. The concept of the “σ‐hole” discussed above was largely driven by the computational works of Politzer and Murray [5,6]. Specifically, they demonstrated the anisotropic charge distribution of halogen atoms forming one covalent bond, the details of which are elaborated on in the computational section.
While not comprehensive, this section illustrates that the accumulation of data showing the attractive noncovalent behavior of halogens is consistent across the three primary phases of matter and in silico. These seminal studies and others provided the groundwork for the “rediscovery” of the halogen bond in the early 2000s.
1.2.1 Rediscovery
Dihalogens contributed extensively to the early identification of the halogen bond interaction. However, diatomic halogens (and interhalogens) limit the possible functional applications because they tend to be reactive and offer little in the way of tunability. This has led to the extensive study of haloorganics since the mid‐1980s, as these species are readily adaptable to systematic study. For example, Weiss described interesting early instances of organic and cationic halogen donor complexes [53–55]. Additionally, a team from Politecnico di Milano in Italy, led by Pierangelo Metrangolo and Giuseppe Resnati, have studied many different haloorganics, including haloperfluorocarbons. Their contributions have aided in stimulating interest in halogen bonding. In particular, a review paper [56] and concept article [57] compile much of their early works and largely unify the field. The paper that many cite as the “rediscovery” of halogen bonding is titled “Halogen bonding: A Paradigm in Supramolecular Chemistry.” Here, Metrangolo and Resnati describe several halogen bonding concepts that remain topical today such as hydrogen and halogen bonding selectivity, donor selectivity, acceptor selectivity, hard–soft acid–base favorability, the ability of the halogen bond to outcompete the hydrogen bond, and the ability of the halogen bond to perform admirably in aqueous media. This unification of halogen bond topics also details various methods for quantifying and identifying halogen bond interactions, including the use of heteronuclear NMR resonances (e.g. 14N and 19F). Lastly, they highlight several crystallographic studies providing the groundwork for the surge in subsequent solid‐state halogen bonding studies. The design principles outlined by Metrangolo and Resnati highlight advantageous features of the halogen bond for the construction of predictable supramolecular architectures. For example, the effectiveness of dihalogen perfluorocarbons paired with various di‐Lewis basic molecules to engender the formation of linear one‐dimensional (1D) chains (Figure 1.5). Taken together, the studies from the groups of Metrangolo and Resnati have been instrumental in making the halogen bond topical to so many diverse research areas.
Figure 1.5 ChemDraw figure highlighting the use of alkyl‐ and aryl‐dihaloperfluorocarbon halogen bond donors to form predictable 1D networks in the solid state.
Source: From Metrangolo and Resnati [57]. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons.
1.3 Crystallographic Studies
X‐ray crystallography has been critical to establishing the field of halogen bonding and remains an integral part of modern analyses. Solid‐state investigations often complement solution studies and provide perspective for the following chapters. For example, crystallography can reveal the atomic positioning of the atoms involved in a halogen bond. In fact, crystal structures will be presented in the ensuing chapters as they often reveal likely solution binding modes or binding stoichiometry. From a crystal engineering standpoint, the linearity of the halogen bond favors predictable structure directing contacts – a lauded feature that has been exploited in the construction of numerous 1D, 2D, and 3D halogen bond architectures [7]. In general, solid‐state studies have largely focused on fundamental investigations evaluating how this interaction “fits” into established crystal engineering concepts, the generation of new halogen bonding concepts, and application of the halogen bond in designed and functional crystalline materials. As such, this section is loosely organized from fundamental to functional studies and begins by highlighting a few CSD evaluations. The section provides a quick survey on halogen bonding in the solid state, and those desiring more extensive treatment of the topic are referred to the following reviews [7,58–65].
1.3.1 CSD Evaluations
Possibly, the first CSD evaluation of what we now understand to be the halogen bond was in 1979 where the geometry of the C–I⋯O interaction was evaluated [66]. Murray‐Rust and Motherwell noted an anisotropic distribution of contact distances as a function of C–I⋯O angle, where shorter contacts (and less variability) were observed for near linear (C–I⋯O ∠ ≈180°) contacts. The trend, although less pronounced, was also observed with Br and Cl species, which we now attribute to their weaker halogen bond donor ability. This initial study pulling from 20 000 structures was revisited again seven years later where the database had grown to 40 000 structures [4]. Here, Ramasubbu, Parthasarathy, and Murray‐Rust evaluated halocarbons (C–X (X = Cl, Br, I)) and their contacts with metals, Lewis bases (nitrogen and oxygen species), and other halogens. The geometric characteristics of the “electrophile–nucleophile pairing(s)” showed that electrophilic metals favor a “side‐on” approach to halogens, nucleophiles exhibited a “head‐on” approach, and other halogens can participate as either the nucleophile (head‐on) or the electrophile (side‐on). These early CSD studies and others [67-69] reinforced the trends previously observed by Bent and Hassel, but observations from larger data sets provided more convincing conclusions.
Elaborating on halogen–halogen contacts, Parthasarathy and Desiraju established a classification scheme that is still used today [68]. The two contacts, type I and type II, are influenced by the anisotropic electron density and polarizability of halogens and have distinct geometrical conditions (Figure 1.6). The type II interaction is a true halogen bond – the electropositive portion of the halogen interacts with the electron‐rich site of another. Type I contacts are considered geometry‐based contacts that arise from close packing [62]. While not halogen bonds, the type I contacts have been designed into solid‐state structure and provide a convenient method of classification. The prefixes cis‐ and trans‐ have been recent additions to describe type I contacts, providing specificity of the arrangement of molecules in type I interactions [70]. A later report by Desiraju highlights a greater frequency of type II interactions