Artificial Intelligence, Cybersecurity and Cyber Defence. Daniel Ventre

Table I.1. The three strata of cyberspace (L = layer) and the place of AI in each of them

	Cyberspace
L3	No AI	AI	Psycho-cognitive.Essential dimension for AI, because the main challenge of AI is to reproduce and imitate cognitive capacities.Creation of fake images, fake videos, fake Internet users, manipulation of information, perceptions, etc.
L2	No AI	AI	Software, applications.Examples: AI-based applications (natural language, image processing, etc.), AI-specific programming languages (LISP, etc.).
L1	No AI	AI	Hardware.Examples: specific chips for AI applications, robots embedded with AI, etc.

Armies and armed conflict have integrated computers, computing, networks and the “cyber” dimension. But this kind of computer science is different from what AI suggests or what it already shows. The computer, as Ted Nelson wrote in 1978, is “a box that follows a plan”² (meaning that, in this concept, the computer executes code, line by line, as programmed, and cannot go beyond it). AI promises precisely to break with this logic, it promises surprises and new worlds. Is the prospect of machines that can make their own decisions, formulate their own plans and “think” something that army commanders can dream of at the beginning of this 21st Century?

      1 1 AI/ES: Artificial Intelligence/Expert Systems.

      2 2 [NEL 78]