2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Heat losses to the surroundings in GTAW. A portion of the nominal...Figure 2.2 Measurement of arc efficiency in GTAW: (a) calorimeter; (b) rise ...Figure 2.3 GTAW vs. PAW: (a) GTAW; (b) PAW. Cooling by orifice gas nozzle an...Figure 2.4 Arc efficiencies in GTAW and PAW.Figure 2.5 Arc efficiencies in GMAW and SAW.Figure 2.6 Calorimeter for measuring heat inputs in GMAW: (a) metal droplets...Figure 2.7 Power inputs during GMAW of aluminum: (a) measured results; (b) b...Figure 2.8 Heat source efficiencies in several welding processes.Figure 2.9 Melting efficiency: (a) transverse weld cross section; (b) lower ...Figure 2.10 Effect of electrode tip angle on shape and power density distrib...Figure 2.11 Effect of electrode tip angle on shape of gas–tungsten arc.Figure 2.12 Effect of electrode tip geometry on shape of gas–tungsten arc we...Figure 2.13 Measured power density distributions.Figure 2.14 HAZ thermal cycle: (a) top view of weld pool, fusion zone (solid...Figure 2.15 Coordinate system (x, y, z) moving with heat source.Figure 2.16 Two‐dimensional heat flow during welding of thin workpiece.Figure 2.17 Modified Bessel function of second kind and zero order.Figure 2.18 Three‐dimensional heat flow during welding of semi‐infinite work...Figure 2.19 Converting the calculated temperature distribution in Figure 2.1...Figure 2.20 Calculated Rosenthal's three‐dimensional heat flow in 1018 steel...Figure 2.21 Similar to Figure 2.20 but with faster welding speed of 6.2 mm/s...Figure 2.22 Weld pool shapes in GTAW of IN718 sheets.Figure 2.23 Sharp pool end in GTAW of 309 stainless steel revealed by ice qu...Figure 2.24 Computer simulation of GTAW of 3.2‐mm‐thick 6061 Al, 110 A, 10 V...Figure 2.25 Effect of power density distribution on weld shape in GTAW of 3....Figure 2.26 The thermal cycle at any location in a weld can be duplicated in...Figure E2.2 Transverse cross‐sections of welds.
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Gas‐tungsten welding arc: (a) sketch; (b) body‐fitted grid system...Figure 3.2 Arc produced by a tungsten electrode with a sharp tip: (a) Lorent...Figure 3.3 Current‐density field (left) and Lorentz force (right) in an arc ...Figure 3.4 Velocity and temperature fields in an arc produced by a tungsten ...Figure 3.5 Arc produced by a tungsten electrode with a flat end: (a) Lorentz...Figure 3.6 Current‐density field (left) and Lorentz force (right) in an arc ...Figure 3.7 Velocity and temperature fields in an arc produced by a tungsten ...Figure 3.8 Electrical conductivity of Ar and He and how they are affected by...Figure 3.9 304 stainless steel welded by stationary gas‐tungsten arc for 20 ...Figure 3.10 Computer simulation of gas‐tungsten arcs considering metal evapo...Figure 3.11 Calculated temperature and Al distributions in lap welding of Al...Figure 3.12 Comparison of measured weld cross‐section with those calculated ...Figure 3.13 Gas–tungsten welding arc: (a) power‐density distribution; (b) cu...Figure 3.14 Effect of arc length on gas‐tungsten welding arcs: (a) power‐den...Figure 3.15 Driving forces for weld pool convection: (a, b) buoyancy force; ...Figure 3.16 Effect of sulfur on surface tension and weld penetration: (a) su...Figure 3.17 Effect of sulfur on YAG laser welds: (a) 304 stainless steel wit...Figure 3.18 Liquid iron with various levels of sulfur: (a) surface tension; ...Figure 3.19 Welds in Wood's metal produced under the influence of: (a) buoya...Figure 3.20 Bead‐on‐plate weld of 304 stainless steel with 40 ppm sulfur mad...Figure 3.21 Visualization of Marangoni flow using laser light‐cut technique:...Figure 3.22 Verifying effect of surface‐active agent on Marangoni flow using...Figure 3.23 Computer modeling showing effect of dγ/dT on fluid flow in ...Figure 3.24 Computer modeling showing flow driven by Lorentz force: (a) curr...Figure 3.25 Computer modeling showing significant weld pool surface deformat...Figure 3.26 Weld pool shapes and isotherms in a 304 stainless steel with 50 ...Figure 3.27 Visualization of inward return flow below pool surface (Figure 3...Figure 3.28 Temperature measurement in NaNO3 pool during flow oscillation (F...Figure 3.29 Conduction‐mode laser spot welding (defocused laser beam, no key...Figure 3.30 Oscillation of a 8.5‐mm‐diameter pool surface in conduction‐mode...Figure 3.31 New theory explaining effect of sulfur shown in Fig. 3.29: (a) (...Figure 3.32 Transverse cross‐sections of 304 stainless steel welds: (a) 42 p...