(e) ANTI-COMPETITIVE PRACTICES. Various trade practices, such as EXCLUSIVE DEALING, REFUSAL TO SUPPLY, FULL-LINE FORCING, etc., may be investigated both by the OFT itself and (if necessary) by the Competition Commission, and prohibited if they are found to be unduly restrictive of competition;
(f) CONSUMER PROTECTION. The OFT is also charged with protecting consumers’ interests generally, both by taking action against unscrupulous trade practices, such as false descriptions of goods and weights and measures, denial of proper rights of guarantee to cover defective goods, etc., and by encouraging groups of suppliers to draw up voluntary codes of ‘good’ practice.
Where a particular dominant firm or merger case falls within the competition rules of both the UK and the European Union (see COMPETITION POLICY (EU)), EU law takes precedence. However, a subsidiarity provision can be invoked that permits the OFT to request permission from the EU competition authorities to investigate a particular dominant firm or merger case if it appears that the ‘European dimension’ is relatively minor compared to its purely local impact.
Fig. 26 Competitive advantage (of countries). The Porter ‘diamond’.
competitive advantage (of countries) the resources and capabilities possessed by a country that underpin its competitiveness in international trade (see COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE). Countries per se do not trade – only persons and firms do. Persons and firms may possess their own unique resources and capabilities, which give them a competitive advantage over others. See COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE (OF FIRMS). This can be enhanced by firms being able to contribute, and tap in, to a country’s resources and capabilities. Michael Porter has developed the so-called ‘diamond’ framework, which encapsulates this potential, consisting of four elements: factor endowments, demand conditions, infrastructure and firm strategy/structure/rivalry. See Fig. 26.
A basic starting point is a country’s factor endowments, such as plentiful (i.e. cheap) labour or skilled labour, raw materials and capital stock, together with its underlying scientific and technological infrastructure. With regard to demand conditions, it is not so much the size of the home market (although it is accepted that a large home base may be necessary to underpin economies of scale in lowering supply costs and prices) as its nature that matters. Porter emphasizes the importance of the presence of sophisticated and demanding buyers in stimulating the innovation and introduction of new products capable of being ‘transferred’ into global markets. The category of ‘related and supporting industries’ provides an important bedrock for competitive success through a network of suppliers and commercial infrastructure (see CLUSTERS). The final quadrant, ‘firm strategy, structure and rivalry’, Porter suggests, may be the most important of all, especially the element of fierce local competition. While international rivalries tend to be ‘analytical and distant’, local rivalries become intensively personal but nonetheless beneficial in providing a ‘springboard’ for international success. All these factors, it is suggested, are interrelated, creating a ‘virtuous circle’ of resource generation and application, and sensitivity in meeting customer demands.
competitive advantage (of firms) the possession by a firm of various assets and attributes (low-cost plants, innovative brands, ownership of raw material supplies, etc.) that give it a competitive edge over rival suppliers. To succeed against competitors in winning customers on a viable (profitable) and sustainable (long-run) basis, a firm must, depending on the nature of the market, be cost-effective and/or able to offer products that customers regard as preferable to the products offered by rival suppliers. The former enables a firm to meet and beat competitors on price, while the latter reflects the firm’s ability to establish PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION advantage over competitors.
Cost advantages over competitors are of two major types:
(a) absolute cost advantages, that is, lower costs than competitors at all levels of output deriving from, for example, the use of superior production technology or from VERTICAL INTEGRATION of input supply and assembly operations;
(b) relative cost advantages, that is, cost advantages related to the scale of output accruing through the exploitation of ECONOMIES OF SCALE in production and marketing and through cumulative EXPERIENCE CURVE effects. Over time, investment in plant renewal, modernization and process innovation (either through in-house RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT or the early adoption of new technology developed elsewhere) is essential to maintain cost advantages.
Product differentiation advantages derive from:
(a) a variety of physical product properties and attributes (notably the ability to offer products that are regarded by customers as having unique qualities or as being functionally better than competitors’ products);
(b) the particular nuances and psychological images built into the firm’s product by associated advertising and sales promotion. Again, given the dynamic nature of markets, particularly product life cycle considerations, competitive advantage in this area needs to be sustained by an active programme of new product innovation and upgrading of existing lines. See COMPETITIVE STRATEGY, RESOURCE BASED THEORY OF THE FIRM, BARRIERS TO ENTRY, MOBILITY BARRIERS, VALUE-CREATED MODEL, VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS.
competitive strategy an aspect of BUSINESS STRATEGY that involves the firm developing policies to meet and beat its competitors in supplying a particular product. This requires the firm to undertake an internal appraisal of its resources and capabilities relative to competitors to identify its particular strengths and weaknesses. It also requires the firm to undertake an external appraisal of the nature and strength of the various ‘forces driving competition’ in its chosen markets (see Fig 27), namely:
(a) rivalry amongst existing firms;
(b) bargaining power of input suppliers;
(c) bargaining power of customers;
(d) threat of new entrants; and
(e) the threat of substitute products.
The key to a successful competitive strategy is then:
(a) to understand fully what product attributes are demanded by buyers (whether it be low prices or product sophistication) with a view to;
(b) establishing, operationally, a position of COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE that makes the firm less vulnerable to attack from established competitors and potential new entrants, and to erosion from the direction of buyers, suppliers and substitute products.
Fig. 27 Competitive strategy. (a) Forces driving competition in a market. (b) Three generic strategies. Source: Michael Porter.
There are three generic strategies for competitive success (Fig. 27 (b)): cost leadership, product differentiation and ‘focus’. Low costs, particularly in commodity-type markets, help the firm not only to survive price competition should it break out but, importantly, enable it to assume the role of market leader in establishing price levels that ensure high and stable levels of market profitability. The sources of cost-effectiveness are varied, including the exploitation of ECONOMIES OF SCALE, investment in best state-of-the-art technology and preferential access to raw materials or distribution channels. By adopting a PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION strategy, a firm seeks to be unique in its market in a way that is valued by its potential customers. Product differentiation possibilities vary from market to market but are associated with the potential for distinguishing products by their physical properties and attributes and the experience of satisfaction – real and psychological – imparted by the product to consumers. General cost