Mapping the patterns of bedrock exposed at the surface often reveals folds and faults that provide key information about the movements that have taken place during the past. Figure 33 provides a key to some of the terms commonly used to classify these structures as a step towards understanding the sorts of movement patterns that they represent. In broad terms, folds tend to indicate some form of local convergent movement, though they may be the result of larger movement patterns of a different kind. Normal faults tend to indicate divergent movements, at least locally, whereas reverse and strike-slip faults tend to indicate convergence. Two broad types of fold are distinguished: synclines are u-shaped downfolds, while anticlines are the opposite – n-shaped upfolds.
Further mapping of folds and faults often reveals complex patterns of changing movements. In the example shown in Figure 34, divergent movements in an area of crust produce plastic deformation in the warmer lower crust, and faulting into a number of discrete blocks in the colder, more brittle, upper crust. This is then followed by an episode of convergent movement that results in closing up the upper crustal blocks and further flow in the plastic lower crust, causing crustal thickening and mountain building at the surface.
Vertical crustal movements as part of other crustal movements
The movement of lithospheric plates is the main cause of convergent and divergent movements affecting thousands of kilometres of the Earth’s surface. As shown in Figures 33 and 34, these horizontal movements are generally accompanied by vertical movements that can produce very large scenic features, such as a mountain belt or a rift valley. In this book we are primarily concerned with scenic features at a more local scale, so we now consider various other processes that may be important in creating vertical crustal movements without contributions from large-scale plate interactions.
FIG 33. The most important types of folds and faults, and the local patterns of forces responsible.
Vertical changes by erosion or deposition
Addition or subtraction of material to the surface of the Earth is happening all the time as sediment is deposited or solid material is eroded. The field of sedimentology is concerned with the wide range of different processes that are involved in the erosion, transport and deposition of material, whether the primary agent of movement is water, ice, mud or wind. An important point is that few of these sedimentary processes relate directly to the large tectonic movements of the Earth’s crust that we have discussed above. Scenery is often produced by erosion of thick deposits that formed in sedimentary basins where material eroded from the surrounding uplands accumulated. One of the characteristic features of these thick deposits is their layered appearance, which is often visible in the scenery. Layering varies from millimetre-scale laminations produced by very small fluctuations in depositional processes, to sheets hundreds of metres thick that extend across an entire sedimentary basin. These thicker sheets are often so distinctive that they are named and mapped as separate geological units representing significant changes in the local environment at the time they were deposited.
FIG 34. Example of a cross-section through the crust, showing how a divergent movement pattern (A) may be modified by later convergent movements (B and C).
Vertical crustal movements resulting from loading or unloading
In addition to the direct raising or lowering of the surface by erosion or deposition, there is a secondary effect due to the unloading or loading of the crust that may take some thousands of years to produce significant effects. As mentioned above, we can visualise the lithosphere as ‘floating’ on the asthenosphere like a boat floating in water. Loading or unloading the surface of the Earth by deposition or erosion will therefore lower or raise the scenery, just as a boat will sit lower or higher in the water depending on its load.
An example of this is the lowering of the area around the Mississippi Delta, loaded by sediment eroded from much of the area of the USA. The Delta region, including New Orleans, is doomed to sink continually as the Mississippi river deposits sediment around its mouth, increasing the crustal load there.
A second example of such loading is provided by the build-up of ice sheets during the Ice Age. The weight of these build-ups depressed the Earth’s surface in the areas involved, and raised beaches in western Scotland provide evidence of the high local sea-levels due partly to this lowering of the crustal surface.
Unloading of the Earth’s surface will cause it to rise. Recent theoretical work on the River Severn suggests that unloading of the crust by erosion may have played a role in raising the Cotswold Hills to the east and an equivalent range of hills in the Welsh Borders (see Chapter 6, Area 9). In western Scotland, as the ice has melted the Earth’s surface has been rising again.
Vertical movements by expansion or contraction
Changing the temperature of the crust and lithosphere is an inevitable result of many of the processes active within the Earth, because they often involve the transfer of heat. In particular, rising plumes of hot material in the Earth’s mantle, often independent of the plate boundaries, are now widely recognised as an explanation for various areas of intense volcanic activity (for example beneath Iceland today). These plumes are often referred to as ‘hot spots’ (see Fig. 32). Heating and cooling leads to expansion or contraction of the lithosphere and can cause the surface to rise or sink, at least locally.
An example of this is the way that Southern England was tilted downwards to the east about 60 million years ago. At about this time, eastern North America moved away from western Europe as the North American and Eurasian plates diverged. The divergence resulted in large volumes of hot material from deep within the Earth being brought to the surface and added to the crust of western Southern England. It is believed that the heating and expansion of the crustal rocks in the west has elevated them above the rocks to the east, giving an eastward tilt to the rock layers and exposing the oldest rocks in the west and the youngest ones in the east. This sequence has important implications for the scenery of England’s south coast (see Chapter 5).
HOW CAN LOCAL SURFACE MOVEMENTS BE DETECTED?
Having just reviewed some of the processes that cause vertical movements of the Earth’s surface, it is useful to consider the practical difficulties of how such movements are measured.
For present-day applications, it seems natural to regard sea level as a datum against which vertical landscape movements can be measured, as long as we remember to allow for tidal and storm variations. However, much work has demonstrated that global sea level has changed rapidly and frequently through time, due to climate fluctuations affecting the size of the polar icecaps and changing the total amount of liquid water present in the oceans and seas. It has also been shown that plate tectonic movements have an important effect on global sea level by changing the size and shape of ocean basins.
Attempts have been made to develop charts showing how sea level, generalised for the whole world, has varied through time. However, it has proved very difficult to distinguish a worldwide signal from local variations, and the dating of the changes is often too uncertain to allow confident correlation between areas.
In sedimentary basins, successful estimates of vertical movements have been made using the thicknesses of sediment layers accumulating over different time intervals in different depths