3.W.M. Macmillan, The Cape Colour Question, London, 1927, 26.
4.S. Marks, 'Khoisan Resistance to the Dutch in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', Journal of African History, 13 ( 1972), 55–80.
5.N. Penn, 'The Frontier in the Western Cape, 1700–1740', in J. Parkington and M. Hall, eds, Papers on the Prehistory of the Western Cape, Oxford, 1987; N. Penn, 'Labour, Land and Livestock in the Western Cape During the Eighteenth Century', in W. G. James and M. Simons, eds, The Angry Divide, Cape Town, 1989.
6.R. Moffat, Missionary Labour and Scenes in Southern Africa, London, 1842, 15.
7.H. Tindall, Two Lectures on Great Namaqualand and its Inhabitants, delivered before the Mechanics' Institute, Cape Town, 1856, 26.
8.Marks, 'Khoisan Resistance to the Dutch'; J. Richner, 'Eastern Frontier Slaving and its Extension into the Transorangia and Natal', paper presented at the Colloquium on the Mfecane Aftermath, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1991.
9.L.M. Thompson, A History of South Africa, New Haven, 1990, 9.
10.Thompson, A History of South Africa, 14.
11.J. Barrow, An Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, in the Years 1797 and 1798 . . ., London, 1801–04. vol. 1 , 2 3 9 .
12.D. Ambrose and A. Brutsch, eds, Missionary Excursion: Thomas Arbousset, Morija, 1991, 104.
13.For details see 'Ergates', 'Bushmen's Stock Raids in Natal', Natal Agricultural Journal, 8 (1905); British Parliamentary Papers, (hereafter BPP), 'Reports and Papers on the Affairs of Cape Colony, the Condition of Native Tribes and the Sixth Kaffir War 1826–36'; and J.B. Wright, Bushman Raiders of the Drakensberg 1840–1870, Pietermaritzburg, 1971.
14.Wright, Bushman Raiders of the Drakensberg.
15.E.B. Hawkins, The Story of Harrismith: 1849–1920, Ladysmith, 1982, 10.
16.See papers in L. M. Thompson, ed., African Societies in Southern Africa, London, 1969, notably D.W. Phillipson, 'Early Iron-using Peoples of Southern Africa', 24–49; G. Harinck, 'Interaction between Xhosa and Khoi: Emphasis on the Period 1620–1750', 145–69; and S. Marks, 'The Traditions of the Natal "Nguni": A Second Look at the Work of A.T. Bryant', 126–44. See also M. Wilson and L.M. Thompson, eds, A History of South Africa to 1870, Cape Town, 1982 and Thompson, A History of South Africa.
17.See, for example, Thompson, A History of South Africa, Fig. 1.
18.See, for example, T. R. H. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History, London, 1991, 4th ed.
19.Wright, 'Political Mythology'.
20.A. A. Anderson, Twenty-five Years in a Waggon, London, 1888, 5–6.
21.In some interesting and illuminating papers, A.E. Voss, 'Thomas Pringle and the Image of the "Bushmen"', English in Africa, 9, 1 (1982); A.E. Voss, 'The Image of the Bushman in South African English Writing of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', English in Africa, 19, 1 (1987); A.E. Voss, 'Die Bushie is Dood: Long Live the Bushie. Black South African Writers on the San', African Studies, 49 (1990); and D. Haarhoff, The Wild South-West: Frontier Myths and Metaphors in Literature in Namibia, 1760–1988, Johannesburg, 1991, have shown how these images of the Bushmen have been used in South African English writing of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as well as by black South African writers. Interestingly, this ideology finds a parallel in the United States with the notion of the 'vanishing American Indian', which also permeates all aspects of white culture, including art and literature; see B.W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Altitudes and U.S. Indian Policy, Middletown, 1982.
22.W.H.I. Bleek, 'Remarks on Orpen's "Mythology of the Maluti Bushman" ', Cape Monthly Magazine, New Series, 9, 49 (1874), 10–13; W.H. I. Bleek, Brief Account of Bushman Folklore and Other Texts, Cape Town, 1875; T.L. Hodgson, The Journals of the Reverend T.L. Hodgson, Missionary to the Seleke-Rolong and the Griquas 1821–1831, ed. by R. L. Cope, Johannesburg, 1977; J. M. Orpen, 'A Glimpse into the Mythology of the Maluti Bushmen', Cape Monthly Magazine, New Series, 9, 49 (1874), 1–10; G. W. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa, London, 1905.
23.As in Wright, Bushman Raiders of the Drakensberg; Penn, 'The Frontier in the Western Cape'; and Penn, 'Labour, Land and Livestock in the Western Cape'.
24.See for example J. Parkington, 'Changing Views of the Late Stone Age of South Africa', in F. Wendorf and A.E. Close, eds, Advances in World Archaeology, 3, New York, 1984; J.R. Denbow, 'A New Look at the Later Prehistory of the Kalahari', Journal of African History, 27 (1986); A. B. Smith, 'Competition, Conflict and Clientship: Khoi and San Relationships in the Western Cape', South African Archaeological Society, Goodwin Series, 5 (1986); J. Kinahan, Pastoral Nomads of the Central Namib Desert: The People History Forgot, Windhoek, 1991; A.D. Mazel, 'People Making History: The Last Ten Thousand Years of Hunter-Gatherer Communities in the Thukela Basin', Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 1 (1989); S.L. Hall, 'Hunter-gatherer-fishers of the Fish River Basin: A Contribution to the Holocene Prehistory of the Eastern Cape', Ph.D. thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 1990.
25.See Mazel 'People Making History' for the most recent syntheses and discussion.
26.Mazel 'People Making History', 141.
27.T.M.O'C. Maggs, 'Msuluzi Confluence: A Seventh-century Early Iron Age Site on the Tugela River', Annals of the Natal Museum, 24 (1980).
28.Mazel, 'People Making History', 142.
29.Mazel, 'People Making History', 132–52.
30.T.M.O'C. Maggs and G. Whitelaw, 'A Review of Recent Archaeological Research on Food-producing Communities in Southern Africa', Journal of African History, 32 (1991), 11.
31.J.D. Lewis-Williams, 'The Economic and Social Content of Southern San Rock Art', Current Anthropology, 23 (1982); J.D. Lewis-Williams, 'Ideological Continuities in Prehistoric Southern Africa: The Evidence of Rock Art', in C. Schrire, ed., Past and Present in Hunter-gatherer Studies, Orlando, 1984; Mazel, 'People Making History'; Hall, 'Hunter-gatherer-fishers'.
32.For a southern African perspective see J.D. Lewis-Williams, 'Social Theory in Southern African Archaeology', paper presented at the South African Association of Archaeologists Conference, Grahamstown, 1985; J.D. Lewis-Williams, 'Southern Africa's Place in the Archaeology of Human Understanding', South African Journal of Science, 85 (1989); T.N. Huffman, 'Cognitive Studies of the Iron Age in Southern Africa', World Archaeology, 18 (1986).
33.C. Schrire, 'An Enquiry into the Evolutionary Status and Apparent Identity of San Hunter-gatherers', Human Ecology, 8 (1980); C. Schrire, Past and Present in Hunter-gatherer Studies; E. N. Wilmsen, Land Filled with Flies, Chicago, 1989; E.N. Wilmson and J.R. Denbow, 'Paradigmatic History of San-speaking Peoples and Current Attempts at Revision', Current Anthropology, 31 (1990).
34.In the 1870s the linguist Wilhelm Bleek and his co-worker Lucy Lloyd took down, by dictation, some 12 000 pages of Bushman texts comprising transcriptions in phonetic script and literal English translations; see J. D. Lewis-Williams, Believing and Seeing: Symbolic Meanings in Southern San Rock Paintings, London, 1981, 25–37. Their informants came from the north-western Cape Province and, later, from the northern Kalahari Desert; see J. Deacon, '"My Place is the Bitterpits"; The Home Territory of Bleek and Lloyd's /Xam San Informants', African Studies, 45 (1986). More recent research has been carried out on the religious beliefs of the Kalahari Bushman groups. Although the relevance of this material was once held in question, a cautious use of this material is now generally accepted; see J.D. Lewis-Williams and M. Biesele, 'Eland Hunting Rituals among Northern and Southern San Groups: Striking Similarities', Africa, 48 (1978); and J.D. Lewis-Williams, 'Ethnographic Evidence Relating