Child Protection. Freda Briggs

a preventive measure, South Australian child protection workers made regular visits to priority schools on one half-day a week to talk informally to concerned parents and staff. Recent initiatives include multi-disciplinary children’s centres and nurses visiting all new mothers. The suggested “whole-school” approach also includes:

       partnerships with family support services to provide a gateway to universaIly accessible information, education and counseIling services for families experiencing difficulties

       expanding the role of school counsellors as a source of leadership and expertise in child protection issues and as a liaison point for information from the relevant department about changes in policies or protocols

       providing “Child Safe Information Kits” for families

       inviting parents to identify issues which may affect their ability to care for children

       identifying strategies for the school to undertake if problems occur; for example if a parent has a recurring mental illness requiring hospitalisation the kit will show how to access alternative sources of care for the child (much like an asthma action plan identifies action in case of an asthma attack)

       providing professional, confidentiaI “debriefing” sessions to individual staff who work with child abuse victims to enable them to express their distress, frustration and options and support them in their role

       better feedback from child protection services to teachers making reports

      The argument from the social work sector is that professionals who identify the risk of physical or emotional abuse and neglect may be the most accessible and continuing source of potential support after a report is made. Schools are perceived as a critical community interface between children and families with the potential to work in partnership with child protection services. However, child protection services have little history of consulting or working in partnership with teachers or, indeed, acknowledging their importance in the protection of children. Furthermore, teachers often have large classes and many other demands are made on them in a restricted period of time.

      Effects of child abuse and trauma on learning

      “Children’s early experiences have far-reaching and solidifying effects on the development of their brains and behaviours. Diverse experiences affect that architecture e.g. the brain, the expression of genes and the biochemistry and physiology of the human body – all of which mediate our cognitive, emotional and social behaviours.” (Shanker 1999²²)

      Brain development begins at conception and continues throughout life. For optimal physical, social, emotional and intellectual growth, babies and young children need close, dependable and predictable, ongoing caring relationships with rich language experiences, age-appropriate (but not over-stimulating) sights and sounds. The child’s capacity to learn and achieve in school is influenced by the neural wiring that takes place in the early years and sets up what is known as the architecture of the brain. The connections formed between neurons and between neural networks affect (a) children’s ability to pay attention; (b) the speed at which they can process and retain information; (c) the ability to recognise patterns and absorb new information; (d) the capacity to understand what others are thinking and feeling, and (e) the ability to grasp and conform to the norms of the classroom²³.

      The changes that take place in the brain’s structure in early childhood ensure that it becomes highly attuned to the child’s environment. It is now widely understood that a young child reared in violent and abusive surroundings will develop brain connections and chemical responses that are highly alert and sensitive to danger signals. The brain presumes that the frightening environment will be ongoing and, therefore, the connections and chemical signal patterns laid down become entrenched. The young child is extremely sensitive to frightening experiences such as emotional and physical neglect associated with maternal depression, a carer’s drug dependence, family violence and all forms of child abuse. Children raised in such environments are likely to experience anxiety when interacting with adults²⁴. Inadequate nurturance from birth to 3 years can also lead to long-term mental illness, depression, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), drug-dependence, loss of impulse control and heightened aggression^25,26,27.

      Teicher²⁸ (2000; 2002) was one of several researchers who confirmed that child abuse and family violence change the structure of the developing brain. He found that a thick cable of nerve cells connecting the right and left sides of the brain (corpus callosum) is smaller than normal in abused children. He and colleagues at McLean Hospital, a psychiatric facility affiliated with Harvard University, compared brain scans from 51 patients and 97 healthy children. The researchers concluded that, in boys, neglect was associated with a significant reduction in the size of the important connector. It was also abnormaIly small in girls who were sexuaIly abused. “We believe that a smaIler corpus caIlosum leads to less integration of the two halves of the brain, and this can result in dramatic shifts in mood and personality,” Teicher explained²⁹. He found that abuse victims are more likely to show problems with emotional regulation, self-concept, social skiIls and academic motivation. He concluded that severe stress in childhood leaves an indelible effect on brain structure and function that can lead to depression, anxiety, PTSD, aggression, impulsiveness, relationship problems, delinquency, hyperactivity or substance abuse.

      So how and why does trauma affect the structure of the brain?

      The brain responds to threat with a set of predictable neurobiological, neuroendocrine and neuropsychological responses. Cortisol and adrenaline, needed for survival in dangerous situations, are released. Neglect or prolonged stress increases the secretion of cortisol, lowering levels of serotonin and elevating noradrenaline^30,31,32. High levels of cortisol are associated with risky decision-making and risky behaviour, especially where taking a risk could potentially yield a reward³³. Excessive levels can actually increase fear.

      In traumatised children, the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine are higher than normal, providing the energy for a “flight or fight” response. They damage the brain and impede learning when released excessively or repetitively. Excessive levels of cortisol also damage the heart, bones, immune system and hippocampus and that, in turn, affects memory, cognition and the recording of emotions attached to stressful events³⁴. Traumatic experiences make the brain go into a state of fear-related activation and constant alertness leading to changes in emotional, behavioural and cognitive functioning. At the slightest threat, stress hormones surge to the brain which then tracks cues that might herald another attack. Persistent or chronic activation leads to poor concentration, sleep and mood problems in addition to hyper-vigilance, a focus on threat-related cues (typically non-verbal), anxiety and behaviour impulsivity which may become maladaptive when the threat has passed³⁵.

      Primary responses to trauma are hyper-arousal (fight or flight) and dissociation (freeze and surrender), each of which activates a specific combination of neural responses. In responding to sexual abuse by an older person, children are most likely to freeze or surrender. Those with PTSD experience a number of physiological and neurobiological changes such as decreased volume of the hippocampus and abnormal activation of the amygdala. The amygdala triggers the “fight or flee” or “freeze/surrender” reaction. The central part of the amygdala plays an important part in anxiety disorders that involve specific fears. Very anxious children have a larger amygdala than normal children. High levels of stimulation to the amygdala interfere with hippocampal functioning. Studies show that people who suffered the stress of incest and those who experienced military combat have a similar, smaller than average hippocampus. The smaller the hippocampus, the more pronounced the symptoms of disassociation which lead to Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). Severe PTSD sufferers have been found to have an average shrinkage of 26% of the left hippocampus and 22% of the right compared with those with no PTSD symptoms³⁶. PTSD sufferers do not respond normally to stress. Under pressure they may feel or act as if they are experiencing abuse all over again.

      Neglected children deprived of a stimulating environment, opportunities for play and close physical contact with their carer have been found to have smaller