101. Josephus claims that Herod imprisoned John to preempt a political unrest among John’s followers (Ant. 18.118).
102. Matt 3:13–15 implies that Jesus goes to John for baptism “to fulfill all righteousness,” as an act of solidarity with the penitent among Israel.
103. Ezek 1:1; Acts 7:56; 10:11.
104. The format of the Matthean genealogy, which starts from the ancestor going down the generations, is more common. Cf. Gen 5:1–32; 11:10–26; 1 Chr 1:1–42.
105. These names appear in both genealogies between Abraham and David: Isaac, Jacob, Perez, Hezron, Arni/Aram, Amminadab, Narshon, Sala/Salmon, Boaz, Obed, and Jesse.
106. Brown 1993: 84–94.
Luke 4
Testing of Jesus (4:1–13)
We are accustomed to viewing Jesus’ encounters with the devil as temptations. It is as appropriate to consider them as tests. Whereas Luke presents three incidents in which Jesus is tempted by the devil, the broader interpretive canvas is the preparation of the Messiah (3:21—4:13). By placing the accounts of Jesus’ baptism, genealogy, and testing one after the other, Luke attends to the identity, legitimacy, empowerment, and training of the Son of God before his public ministry begins in earnest. The Greek verb peirazō can mean “to test” or “to tempt,” leaving room for competing perspectives. Accordingly, the noun peirasmos can be translated as “test,” “trial,” or “temptation.” God puts his Son’s fidelity and obedience to the test by allowing the devil to present these tests as temptations.
In the OT, tempting and testing appear in various shades of meaning, depending on the context. God tested the faith and obedience of his people, as with Abraham in the command to sacrifice his son Isaac (Gen 22:1–19). He tested the Israelites through their need for sustenance while sojourning in the wilderness (Exod 16:4; 20:20). On the flip side, the Israelites were chided for testing God by not trusting in his provision (Exod 17:2; Ps 95:8–10). Then there was the serpent who tempted Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit (Gen 3:1–19). Unequivocally, tests and trials from God are seen as positive and instructive, whereas temptations from the devil or from human beings are suspect.
Taken out of the narrative context of Luke 3–4, one might suggest that these three vignettes present Jesus’ response as a model for fending off temptations, as though citing choice Bible verses would send the devil running. A deep knowledge of Scripture is certainly helpful in the face of temptations of any sort, but this interpretation is superficial. Jesus is engaged in a serious battle with the devil, not a Scripture-quoting contest. Seeing this account only as Jesus’ identification with believers who face temptation in daily life misses the key themes in Luke’s theological ruminations surrounding Jesus’ divine sonship and messianic kingship. Now that Jesus has been filled with the Holy Spirit and commissioned as Israel’s Messiah (3:21–22), he must demonstrate his unwavering fidelity to his Father’s purposes, to make good on his claim that he must be about his Father’s business (2:49).
The setting of the first test/temptation is replete with allusions to the exodus. First, Jesus is the Son of God, but so is Israel in a metaphorical sense (Exod 4:22–23; Hos 11:1). The father-son relationship expects fidelity from Jesus and Israel alike. Second, just as the Israelites were led by God in the wilderness for their humbling and testing (Deut 8:2), Jesus, “full of the Holy Spirit,” is “led (ēgeto) by the Holy Spirit in the wilderness” (4:1). The double mention of the Holy Spirit underscores Jesus’ empowerment and access to divine help. The passive imperfect verb, ēgeto, conveys a continual sense of the Spirit’s presence, leading and guiding Jesus throughout this time, rather than simply bringing him to the place of testing and leaving him there to fend for himself. Third, Jesus’ forty days in the wilderness parallel Israel’s forty years of wandering (Neh 9:21; Amos 2:10). Fourth, the nature of all three tests/temptations and Jesus’ responses take us back to specific experiences of Israel in their desert wanderings. Where Israel failed, Jesus prevails and shows himself worthy of the dual roles as the faithful representative of God before Israel and the obedient leader of Israel before God.
The first temptation involves the exploitation of privileges that come with divine sonship. Jesus has not eaten for forty days (4:2). Fasting and prayer put a person in an open posture before God, but by the end of this period Jesus is very hungry and the devil finds an opportunity to exploit this point of weakness. His opening bid, “if you are the Son of God” (4:3; also 4:9), does not express doubt but challenge. Neither Jesus nor the devil disputes the reality of Jesus’ divine sonship. Based on this status, the devil asks, “Since you are the Son of God, why don’t you take advantage of your authority and command this stone to become a loaf of bread? Come on, you are hungry, and your Father has given you the ability to solve this simple problem. What are you waiting for?”
Jesus’ reply hearkens back to Israel’s experience in the wilderness when the people were hungry and pining for the delicacies of Egypt (Exod 16:3). Jesus rejects Israel’s distrustful attitude with a retort, “One does not live by bread alone” (4:4). This quotation, taken from Deuteronomy 8, addresses not only why God allowed hunger to set in but where true sustenance must come from: “He humbled you by letting you hunger, then by feeding you with manna, . . . in order to make you understand that one does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of the lord” (Deut 8:3). The backdrop of the wilderness wanderings underscores the humility required of Israel, and now of Jesus, to trust that God is dependable and will feed his children (cf. 11:3; 12:22–24). The Son of God will not assuage the desires of his belly by his own means even if he has the power to do so. He chooses to depend on his Father’s provision, given by God’s initiative and in God’s timing.
The devil next shows Jesus a bird’s-eye view of “all the kingdoms of the world” (4:5). While no such place actually exists to provide a panoramic vista of this extent, the picture signifies the culmination of all earthly power and authority. The devil purports that he has been given authority over the entire world, therefore he has the right to give it away as he pleases. On that basis he demands homage in exchange for glory and power (4:6–7). Is the devil lying or does he, being the prince of darkness, really hold sway over the affairs of this world?
Jesus’ rebuttal gets at the heart of the matter: “Worship the Lord your God, and serve only him” (4:8; cf. Deut 6:13). In the OT, Israel repeatedly failed to worship YHWH alone, beginning with the wilderness generation that worshiped the golden calf to subsequent generations drawn to the gods of the Canaanites.107 Yet Jesus’ citation comes at the heels of the Shema, commanding Israel to love YHWH, the only God, with all its heart, soul, and might (Deut 6:4–5). God’s people must never bow down before other gods (Exod 20:2–3; Deut 6:13–14). The devil’s temptation strikes at this fundamental loyalty concerning what it means to be the people of God and, above all, the Son of God. Moreover, in Psalm 2, after the affirmation, “You are my Son,” (Ps 2:7; cf. Luke 3:22), God continues, “Ask of me, and I will make the nations your heritage, and the ends of the earth your possession” (Ps 2:8). Jesus’ status as the divine Son already entitles him to have authority over all powers, given to him as his inheritance. He does not have to resort to inferior means to grasp that which is rightfully his.
The final temptation takes place at the highest point of the temple in Jerusalem (4:9). The devil uses Ps 91:11–12