In Paul’s present ministry, his pattern of hard and fruitful work, propelled by God’s grace, serves to reinforce Paul’s standing alongside the other apostles (15:10b). God’s surprising choice of Paul as a minister did not bring a deficient outcome (οὐ κενὴ ἐγενήθη), which implies that Paul had enjoyed a fruitful ministry. Paul is thus able to conclude this section of the argument with the assertion that his preaching is equivalent to that of the other apostles (15:11). This passage on the whole reveals an attitude of respect and cooperation towards the other apostles. It also numbers Paul among the apostles. Though Paul’s past should disqualify him from the honor of apostolic ministry, he is able to vouch for the full legitimacy of his apostleship by virtue of Christ’s appearance to him and through appeal to his steadfast and fruitful service enabled by God’s gracious work through him.
The pendulum swings back towards an assertion of Paul’s authority in 2 Cor 11:5. The issue needing defense in 2 Cor 10–13 is that authentic ministry is founded upon God’s powerful work through human weakness, rather than upon the talents of polished and imposing leaders. Paul engages in his opponents’ own foolish style of argument (11:1) by building up his own credentials before setting them aside in favor of God’s use of his suffering and weakness. As part of the preliminary promotion of his authority, Paul contends for his equality with the other apostles in 2 Cor 11:5. Scholars disagree as to whether the (οἱ ὑπερλίαν ἀπόστολοι) in 11:5 (and 12:11) are the same people as the pseudo-apostles of 11:13 (also implied in 11:4). Some scholars, pointing out that the references occur in the same passage, see the two labels as referring to the same false teachers.218 Others discern that the two groups are different.219 The second option is to be preferred, since the two labels are used with different connotations for different purposes. The pseudo-apostles are flatly denounced, while the premier apostles are used in comparison to Paul’s own authority.220 Paul’s argument in 2 Cor 11:4–5 is that the Corinthian believers need to accept his teaching in a way that does justice to his authority. If they receive heterodox teaching with such enthusiasm (11:4, with reference to false apostles), they should welcome the teaching of a genuine apostle all the more (11:5, with reference to legitimate apostles).
Paul revisits the same line of thought in 2 Cor 12:11–12, admitting to resort to foolishness again. The wording of 2 Cor 12:11 practically repeats the wording of 2 Cor 11:5. Paul’s authority should be considered as being on par with the authority of even the most prominent apostles (again most likely corresponding to the leaders of reputation in Gal 2:1–10). Paul supports this position by directing the Corinthians’ attention to the signs of an apostle that God displayed in Paul’s ministry.221 The observation from 2 Cor 11:5 and 12:11–12 that is most pertinent to this book is that Paul is willing to highlight and defend his apostleship and equality with other apostles for the sake of ensuring that his gospel receives a proper hearing. The tone is accordingly very similar to the tone in Galatians 1:1—2:10.
Finally, in Rom 11:13 Paul mentions his apostleship to the Gentiles in the midst of a discussion about God’s purposes for the Jews in bringing salvation to the Gentiles. This passage aligns well with the delineation of Paul’s apostolic ministry in Gal 2:8, where Paul’s authority among the Gentiles was equated to Peter’s authority among the Jews. Paul shares the name “apostle” with other early apostles and shares their basic message. Where he is distinct, however, is in his commissioning to the Gentiles. This difference is reflected in Paul’s gospel as well, since he must highlight and defend the full applicability of Christ’s work to Gentiles apart from the Law (see Rom 3:21, 28).
The testimony from the preceding passages produces a coherent composite picture of Paul’s apostleship. The emphasis differs somewhat in the various passages, yet these divergences can be explained best by looking at the two passages that are most pronounced in their differences, 1 Cor 15:1–11 and Gal 1:1—2:10. The tone and balance of 1 Cor 15:1–11 as compared to Gal 1:1—2:10 creates no contradiction in Paul’s understanding of his apostleship and relationship to tradition.
Both passages uphold both the chronological priority of the earlier apostles and the full membership of Paul in their number. The occasion behind Gal 1:1—2:10 required a stronger emphasis on Paul’s independent authority, since the reception of his gospel among the Gentiles was at stake, whereas in 1 Cor 15:1–11, Paul’s purposes are better served by accentuating common ground and respect for the first apostles and their teaching.222
Both passages also group Paul’s revealed gospel with the recognized teaching of the early church. The teaching affirmed in 1 Cor 15:3–7 has been passed down rather than received by divine revelation as in Gal 1:11–12. But Paul’s gospel, with its accent placed on the benefits for Gentiles, is recognized as existing in harmony with the predominant tradition in Gal 2:1–10. This same accord is implied with the inclusion of Paul’s witness of Christ in the tradition in 1 Cor 15:8. Therefore, Paul’s gospel, while not equivalent to the inherited tradition in either 1 Corinthians 15 or Galatians 1–2, is in both places congruent with that tradition.223 Other passages fit somewhere on the spectrum between 1 Corinthians 15 and Galatians 1–2. In each case, Paul understands himself as an apostle on the same level as the most eminent apostles and sees his teaching as being in basic harmony with theirs.
Paul’s Suffering and Imprisonment
Suffering and imprisonment are prominent themes in Paul’s description of his ministry, and these themes are featured as well in the Epistle to the Laodiceans, 3 Corinthians, Colossians, and Ephesians. Among the significant passages on this topic in the undisputed letters are Gal 6:17; 1 Cor 4:8–13; Phil 1:7, 12–26, 29–30; 2:16–18; 3:8–11; 2 Cor 1:5–11; 4:7–12; 6:3–10; Phlm 1, 9–10, 13, 23. Paul’s theological appraisal of his suffering and imprisonment as well as his purposes for discussing his hardships will be investigated in this section. It will be argued that Paul understands his suffering as a central aspect of his ministry and as an extension of his theology regarding union with Christ.224
Paul shares an enigmatic statement about bearing the marks of Jesus (τὰ στίγματα τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) at the end of his letter to the Galatians (Gal 6:17). The preceding context suggests that Paul is referring to the suffering he has endured because of his association with a crucified Savior (Gal 6:12).225 Any suffering Paul has endured is consistent with Paul’s message of Christ crucified and an outworking of being crucified with Christ (Gal 2:20). Paul may have specific injuries in mind, because he mentions that the marks of Christ are on his body.226 Paul employs this reminder of his afflictions for several possible reasons as part of a warning to those who oppose him. First, as a closing remark, this recollection of Paul’s arduous, suffering-laden ministry for the Galatians serves to strengthen the force of Paul’s argument in the letter.227 The sincerity of Paul’s devotion to Christ is enhanced by reference to his suffering. Second, Paul’s intimate bond with Christ suggests that causing trouble to Paul entails causing trouble to Christ.228 Third, Paul’s brand-marks also function to identify that he belongs to Jesus.229 So it is possible that the verse serves as a further reminder that Paul answers to God alone and will not succumb to pressure applied by opponents (see the connection between Paul’s identity as Christ’s servant [δοῦλος] and his resistance to pleasing people in Gal 1:10).
Paul highlights the mistreatments and hardships endured as an apostle in 1 Cor 4:8–13.