My friends in the Netherlands at the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, Frank Kolsteeg, Dr. Jaap Van Hulten, and Dr. Remco Koopemeiers, were critical in assisting me with regard to research on the operation of sports clubs in Europe, especially AFC Ajax Amsterdam. There are many others to thank who gave me encouragement and help along the way, both in America and Europe, including Amy Perko, Ben Bendrich, Chris Chaney, Christian Papay, Todd Kearns, Aaron Chapius, Sonny and Pam Vaccaro, Dr. Richard Vedder, Dan Beebe, Dr. Richard Southall, Dr. Katie Otto, Dr. Jason Lanter, Dr. Lawrence Chalip, Dr. Ellen Staurowsky, Dr. Jay Coakley, and Dr. John Gerdy. I must also thank my anonymous reviewers and the editorial team at Ohio University Press/Swallow Books, including editor Gillian Berchowitz, Nancy Basmajian and Susan Welch, along with members of the editorial review board. Other primary influencers for this book include Terry Holland, Dale Brown, Dr. Ming Li, Dr. Michael Cross, Oliver Luck, and Tom Farrey. I also thank my crack graduate assistants at Ohio University, Ali Speck and Alec Koondel, who spent hours helping me revise and enhance the manuscript.
I want to recognize and deeply thank my colleagues in the Department of Sports Administration at Ohio University’s College of Business, who are some of the finest teachers, scholars, and people I know. It is an honor to work with the best sports management faculty in the world. Drs. Michael Pfahl, Norm O’Reilly, John Nadeau, Charles “Doc” Higgins, Andy Kreutzer, Heather Lawrence, and Greg Sullivan, plus Bob Boland, Louis Iglesias, Jim Kahler, Annie Brackley, Christina Wright, Luke Sayers, Aaron Wright, and Teresa Tedrow, are colleagues and friends who certainly keep me motivated and excited to come to work each day. All of the The Drake Group members deserve praise and thanks, but I want to specifically thank Mary Willingham, Sally Dear-Healey, Dr. Jay Smith, Dr. Gerald Gurney, Dr. Allen Sack, Dr. Donna Lopiano, Jayma Meyer, Dr. Brenda Reimer, Dr. Fritz Polite, Dr. Michael Malec, Brian Porto, and Dr. Andy Zimbalist for their support and counsel over the years. Special thanks to the AFC Ajax soccer club in Amsterdam, FSV Bayreuth, Hertha BSC Berlin, and the world headquarters of Puma and Adidas in Herzogenaurach, Germany, especially Matthias Fischer of the Adidas Group, for all of their assistance and help.
Finally, none of this would have been possible without the support of Dr. Kahandas Nandola, Professor Emeritus of Ohio University. Dr. Nandola sadly passed away in September 2017, but his legacy continues on through a generous endowed professorship and professorial stipend that I have been privileged to hold since 2012. It has been an honor. I strive every day to uphold his ideals, passion, and achievements, so that I may be a worthy holder of the title that bears his name.
1
Why America Needs Alternative Models of Sports Development and Delivery
Sport is part of every man and woman’s heritage and its absence can never be compensated for.
—Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympic Movement
THE ESSENCE OF SPORTS
The phenomenon of sports throughout history has been a consistent subject of empirical and popular inquiry. Arguably, there is not a better quote than the one above to describe the importance of sports and sports participation in the world. As de Coubertin stated, sports are ubiquitous and will always be a part of our lives in some form. The former president of the International Olympic Committee, Juan Antonio Samaranch, once placed sports and sports development among the most important social phenomena of the twentieth century. He added that “sport has confirmed itself as a means of education, source of health and improved quality of life, an element of recreation and leisure occupation, first-rate entertainment, [and] factor of social communication” (quoted in Thoma and Chalip 2003, xi). As a researcher of sports and social phenomena in sports, as well as a lifelong participant and fan, I wholeheartedly agree with the pronouncements of de Coubertin and Samaranch. However, we also have to recognize that sports delivery and sports development are changing and, like anything else, need to evolve to keep up with shifts in the industry and with the current time. Sports development and delivery worldwide has changed dramatically with the availability of new technology, including fantasy and e-sports activities. Variations in sports participation and the subsequent impact on public health, in access to sports and recreation opportunities, along with the increasing financial cost of participation, to name a few issues, have also changed how we consume and participate in sports in ways we could never have imagined. The real questions now are how we are to understand the ways in which sports affect our lives, positively or negatively, and how we are to manage the future of sports and sports development in a rapidly changing world.
While the positives of sports and sports participation are many, it is clear that the system in which they take place is undergoing a significant evolution, specifically in the United States. As indicated in empirical and popular literature over the past century, sports occur in the context of large, complex organizations and processes that have constantly evolved into what Thoma and Chalip called, two decades ago, “this new world of international sport” (2003, 1). Today, this new world of sports involves globalization, television and other rights, licensing, sponsorships, and an increased flow of traditional and nontraditional content, such as e-sports, with all of this and more leading to unprecedented changes in sports and sports development as we know it. However, there are numerous problems, many of which this book defines and offers potential solutions for. Several issues are pushing us to the point of seriously discussing how we evolve American sports development. Several current problems and challenges in the American sports system are discussed in forthcoming chapters along with proposed solutions. There are obviously many issues that can be addressed, but for the purposes of this book, the problems addressed are primarily focused on economic issues, public health problems, education, and access to sports and recreation. Specific problems discussed include elite and competitive athletics within the educational space, a growing athletes’ rights movement that is even focusing on labor relations at the intercollegiate sports level, changes to the status and competitive level of primary and secondary school sports, legal challenges, legislative and other potential government intervention, public health issues, greater access to sports and recreational activities, and where to put “other” less commercially viable sports that are losing teams and opportunities as more money and resources are directed toward football and basketball.
Even with these many issues and problems that need to be corrected, numerous benefits and positives regarding sports and sports development continue to exist in the United States. At their core, some things regarding sports and even the sports industry have remained fairly constant through their history (more fully discussed in chapter 2). Whether it is a matter of elite, mass-participation, or recreational sports, it remains possible (and, if done correctly, even probable) that, through sports, one can learn how to move, use, and know one’s body, and that participation in sports can be a vital part of an active and healthy lifestyle. Sports can help one develop needed social and personal skills like discipline, confidence, leadership, teamwork, and organization. They can teach one to respect rules and authority and gain core values like tolerance, respect, and fair play. Additionally, organized sports can be a valuable augmentation to the educational and maturation processes. Learning how