There are many psalms that might be assumed as having been authored by David.63 Such speak too of David as the founder of the temple (2 Sam. 7), even though David did not build it, which marks out the temple as the focal point for the good life and the hope for the future. It is not surprising then that the ark would embody memories of the celebrations and the triumphs of יהוה during the early days of the conquest of Canaan. In Shechem, and likely Bethel and Shiloh as well, the ark conferred its cultic concreteness upon both dimensions of the Mosaic covenant: vertical, since it exhibited the bond which united יהוה to Israel; and horizontal, since it cemented the solidarity of the heterogeneous tribes under their shared allegiance. The ark of Elohim became known as the ark of the covenant only in the later deuteronomistic traditions, which date from the seventh-century BCE and constituted part of the major reforms instituted at that time during the reigns of Hezekiah and Josiah.
The Deuteronomists are, of course, responsible for the book of Deuteronomy. The other pentateuchal sources reflect the ongoing editorial process of the Yahwistic theologians. In 2 Sam. 6, which is fairly late in the tradition, the ark is first referred to as the ark of יהוה. In the editorial composition by the Deuteronomist historian(s) it is clear that the ark of יהוה will be housed in a tent or tabernacle rather than the temple which David longs to erect to the glory of the LORD.64 The locus of Jerusalem was always understood by Jewish historians, prophets, and psalmists who perceived Zion clearly in theological terms, as Israel’s theological home. The theology of Zion is given its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. Jerusalem as a symbol runs like a sacred, golden thread through the entire fabric of Judaism.
At the center of the thought of Judaism about the land stands Jerusalem. The foundations of the Davidic monarchy were understood in purely sacral terms. Monarchy in the ancient Near east was a sacred and religious institution. A synthesis between Yahwism and the objective realities of the ancient neighborhood resolved the crisis during the age of the Judges, subsequently resulting in David and his kingdom. Prior to the monarchy, Israel was complete as the people of God as a theocracy, Yhwh having been anointed ‘the lamp of Israel and the breath of the life of the nation’ (Lam. 4:20).65
Jerusalem and Zion are clearly closely linked in the Psalter. I was glad when they said to me, “Let us go to the house of יהוה!” Now our feet are standing within your gates, O Jerusalem. Jerusalem– built as a city that is bound firmly together. (Psalm 122:1–3, NRSV); and, those who trust in יהוה are like Mount Zion, which cannot be moved, but abides forever (Psalm 125:1, NRSV). cf. (65:1; 76:1,2; 87:1,2; 137:7; 147:12).
Whereas the founding of the monarchy may be viewed as the culminating point of the First Testament, the establishment of the temple and its cultic aspects served as the highpoint of Israel’s post-nomadic settled life in Palestine. The meaning and even the memory of the institution of the monarchy in Israel differed dramatically from that of its neighbors. From its seat of power in Jerusalem the bond between יהוה in Israel and the city in which יהוה is worshiped is never as pronounced as elsewhere. For instance, nowhere in the Hebrew Bible is יהוה ever described as the God of Jerusalem. Such a direct involvement between יהוה their God, and a city made by human hands—as other cities elsewhere in the ancient Near East do commonly associate—is not feasible, in principle, in Israel. This important distinction clearly sets ancient Israel apart from the neighboring monarchies. יהוה will rule over Israel and the kings will be the anointed ones of the LORD. They will always and only derive their sovereignty and their legitimacy from יהוה before whom all serve and are subservient. יהוה will not be confined in a house or a city or any sacred space made with human hands.
In the coronation (enthronement) psalms (Pss 2, 45, 93, 95–99, 110) it’s been argued that the king is there addressed as a god. But there is no evidence in the Hebrew Bible to support such speculations. 66On the contrary, many scholars dispute the idea of any divine enthronement festival, and draw attention to the significant connections that exist between these psalms and Third Isaiah. In Isaiah 52:7 the exclamation מלך אלהיך (your God reigns!) was the glad news proclaimed to an exiled Israel and provided assurance of a coming deliverance and restoration—not just of exiled Israel but of an exiled planet. Psalm 45:7, where the king appears to be addressed as God, is best rendered: Your divine throne is for all time and eternity; and in 45:8, Therefore has God your God anointed you (NRSV).
This no more presumes an apotheosis of the king than Israel is thought of as being divinized as a people when she is referred to in a divine utterance from the eighth-century BCE prophet Hosea: When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my chosen/son (Hosea 11:1, LW). The glory/power of יהוה will be revealed in these sacred spaces, but the power and the glory will never be contained in them or circumscribed by them. In contrast to her neighbors, there is nothing in Israel’s history that would suggest any sort of divine kingship having been adopted. 67
As was noted previously, the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 is not only the earliest psalm which attributes decisive activity to יהוה, it is also the oldest extant fragment in the entire Hebrew Bible. So the origins of the Hebrew Bible, it may be said, can be traced to this late Bronze Age song. The story is passed down and centuries later, it extols יהוה as the delivering agent. Its context is mid-late twelfth century BCE, and lies a little distance from the events celebrated. It is a psalm of thanksgiving and praise to Yhwh (ברכו י יהוה) for victory over the Canaanite forces at Megiddo. In Judges 5:11, 13, Israel is called “the people of Yahweh,” but יהוה is not a part of the local Canaanite pantheon.
Yahweh seems to have been a cultural import to Palestine from the south. This is indicated by the Bible’s early theophany poetry (Deut 33:2; Judg 5:4–5; Hab 3:3). According to Exod 17:8, 15–16, a shrine called Throne of Yahweh (following MT) was located in Sinai as one of the station points on the exodus itinerary. A home base for Yahweh in the south also synchronizes with the tradition that this god’s particular mountain was situated in the Sinai Peninsula, which stands in sharp contrast to the alternative, “Canaanite” concept of Mount Zaphon in the north (cf. Ps 68:9).68
The Judges 5 poem also highlights the role of יהוה as Divine Warrior who dictates the outcome of the battle by causing an earthquake and sending violent storms (Judg 5:4, 5). Deborah’s song elicits the response of all nature in praise of the mighty acts of God. The Song of Deborah exhibits repetitive parallelisms that are reminiscent of fourteenth-century BCE Ugaritic texts. The poem’s language is archaic Hebrew and renders the task of translating the text very difficult. Nevertheless, this is precisely what one would expect from the Hebrew Bible’s earliest fragment. As was mentioned at the beginning שדי (shaddai, the god of the mountains), largely translated the Almighty in the LXX, appears in the Psalter in Psalms 91 and 68.
In Psalm 91, שדי (Shaddai) is indicative of the place of refuge and shelter. The fact that Shaddai is included along with the other three divine appellatives, in just one strophe, is singularly notable. Psalm 91 expresses a bedrock confidence in God. Our poet is focused on the character of God’s protective refuge of the faithful. To seek refuge in יהוה means one recognizes that nothing is analogous to the God of Israel. Trust is confidence of life in the face of all threats and all three dimensions of the psalmist’s being—heart, soul, and mind—participate in this joyous security and the enjoyment of a fullness of life and serenity of spirit, shalom.
People who dwell near God, live. People who are far from God, die! The psalmist’s concentrated images of refuge seek to repose the sheltering of the soul within the shadow of the divine presence. The entirety of ultimate refuge and security resides in God–the Almighty One. Helmer Ringgren connects these refuge images to Israel’s worshiping life in the temple. Ancient Israel’s experience of
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