Many people typically think of literature as works of creative writing, often fiction or poetry that evoke an emotional response from the reader. Literary texts use characterization, plot, and figurative language to great effect. Rhetoric, the art of persuasion, is the basis for informational text. That statement may be surprising, but any text presents a rhetorical stance, an inherent argument for the reader. For example, a text may appear to do nothing but inform, stating a series of facts. However, selecting those facts, choosing their presentation in a particular sequence, and selecting any textual structures presents an argument in favor of the information, and a careful reader can see them in that manner. When students analytically read an informational text, this can reveal authorial choices related to the author’s purpose and occasion, each of which are related to the creation of an argument and a reaction in the mind of the reader. Rhetoric is essentially the skill of argumentation, or the ability to use an appeal to build a strong and convincing argument. Already one can see the separate concepts and terminology typically associated with each category of texts. However, if one backs away from the dichotomy of informational and literary and sees a text as a text only, then one can perceive more commonality between these two categories. For example, what literary critics call figurative language (simply put, the ability to say one thing and mean at least two things) is really a rhetorical figure, a method used both in literary and informational texts. To illustrate, Robert Burns (1794) begins his famous poem with, “My love is like a red, red rose.” This is figurative language, specifically a simile, in which two dissimilar things—(1) his love and (2) a rose—are compared using the word like. Although literary critics call such devices figurative language, the larger category to which figurative language belongs is the category of rhetorical figures, and writers of argument make effective use of such structures. Many aspects of literary texts have their counterparts in informational texts. For example, there is much commonality, if not a one-to-one correspondence, between the basic elements of setting in a literary text and occasion in an informational one. For this reason, consider simplifying instruction in these areas, and when possible, approach teaching both the literary and informational elements together. That way, students can see these connections and apply similar techniques to both literary and informational texts immediately.
This may oppose the traditional approach of genre-based units (a unit on the short story and then a later unit on informational text in an English language arts classroom, or a narrative story in one unit and an essay in another unit in a physical education classroom). However, teaching the application of rhetorical elements to both kinds of texts reveals a new form of intertextual instruction, where students might read a short story on a topic and then an essay on the same general topic within a few days.
The advantage is that teachers can focus less on genre and more on text complexity as students develop close reading skills. Thus, a class can start with approachable, grade-level short stories, poems, and essays and then proceed to much more challenging texts without getting caught up in the type (genre) of text. This is more efficient in developing student skills and is wholly appropriate when the focus is on developing students’ close reading and interpretive skills.
This same approach can apply in content areas other than English language arts. For example, a social studies teacher examining the historical period in 18th century England might have students examine a satirical work of prose, such as Jonathan Swift’s (1729/1996) A Modest Proposal, as a text supporting the Irish rebellion against English landlords, as well as some of the satirical poetry on the same subject. In the same way, a science teacher might have students read an essay on environmental issues, and then turn to the more elegant prose of, for example, conservationist Rachel Carson, understanding that her work is still an informational text but filled with effective literary devices.
To be clear, we cannot teach the skill of close reading of informational text solely by providing students with literary texts, or the reverse. The skills of close reading are the same, regardless of which type of text a student reads. We must teach students all types of texts, and we must do a thorough job of preparing them to handle complex and challenging informational texts, because these are the primary texts they will encounter in postsecondary education and in life.
Passage Length and Purpose
Ideally, the passage should be rich and short. A close reading passage should offer a great deal from a small amount of text. For this reason, teachers must be aware that not everything is a candidate for close reading. Reading through an entire scene of a Shakespearean tragedy or even half a chapter of a grade-level novel is simply too much text for close reading, especially for students in lower secondary grades. It should be possible to provide the entire text for a close reading passage on a single side of an 8.5 × 11 sheet of paper. If the text requires multiple pages, consider shortening it; there is probably too much there to deal with effectively. The aim is for students to delve deeply into the text; the more text, the shallower the dig.
While it is true that different students will notice different things, the shorter the selection (within reason), the more likely there will be commonality among the students’ annotations. So, it is in the teacher’s hands to find that one passage, perhaps just a few sentences or a couple of paragraphs at most, that yields the most in terms of meaning, literary devices, argument development, or the focus of the lesson.
At the same time, it is occasionally necessary to use a passage that is much longer due to the nature of the study in a unit. It may be, for example, an important historical document that demands longer sections for analysis. An example of this appears in appendix B (page 107), which examines an excerpt from Thucydides’s (431–404 BCE/1972) History of the Peloponnesian War, specifically, Pericles’s Funeral Oration. This superb speech does not lend itself to short passages; it is so finely crafted that students must look at a longer-than-usual excerpt to see the way the author linked many elements of argument together. There are times when students should work with longer passages, but teachers must limit those occasions and be sure to provide adequate class time for them to go deeply into the longer passages.
As we attempt to determine a short, specific passage from a larger text as the subject of close reading, there are four general guidelines to follow.
1. Be sure the text is appropriate to the class level. Obviously, we want the reading level and complexity to be appropriate for the current overall abilities of the class.
2. The text should be relevant to the content of the lesson or unit. The lesson or unit may have a focus on a particular theme or literary device. The passage should be rich in this element.
3. Be sure that the length of the text fits its purpose. The purpose of the lesson may dictate how long the passage can be. If we’re looking for only an example or two of a particular device, then the passage can be substantially shorter than if we’re looking to determine the effect of multiple uses of a device.
4. Ensure that the style of the text fits its purpose. Different writing styles present different challenges to students. If the purpose of the lesson or unit is to focus on a specific, challenging style for analysis, then the style should match that purpose. If the purpose of the lesson or unit is to focus on a specific rhetorical device and its use, then the style should support (not challenge) the development of analysis of that skill.
The following is an example of how a teacher might select a short passage. Shakespeare’s (1595/1997b) Romeo and Juliet is standard fare in a ninth-grade English language arts classroom. As stated previously, it is impossible for students to close read an entire play, or even full scenes from a Shakespearean play, at this grade level. Assume a teacher has planned a three-week unit on Romeo and Juliet and will not be asking students to read every word of the play. Some of the less important scenes can be viewed on video in between readings of important scenes. In a three-week unit, the class might close read three or four passages. Which scenes the teacher chooses depends largely on the focus and purpose of the study of the play. First, the teacher identifies a list of potential scenes from which she will choose close reading passages. The four guidelines provided in the preceding