Instructional Strategies for Effective Teaching. James H. Stronge

it is difficult to get them to speak up. Students using graphic organizers to take notes during their reading (such as the bubble maps on the characters in Romeo and Juliet) are more prepared and better able to discuss. Some students have complained that they would rather just talk and not have to cite their evidence in the text, but I have explained to them that this is English class, so citing from the text is the purpose—we’re not just here to discuss philosophy (although that can be part of it). I think this type of discussion is great for students to practice their critical thinking and communication skills.

      Compared to one-way lecturing, discussion is an effective way to encourage greater levels of student participation. High-quality discussion also means that students have time to reflect and prepare thought-provoking comments.

       Techniques for Improving a Discussion

      Once the discussion has started, there are several techniques teachers can use to improve it. Here, we synthesize and present a number of practice tips to help facilitate classroom discussion (Alozie & Mitchell, 2014; Barton, 1995; Henning, McKeny, Foley, & Balong, 2012; van Drie & Dekker, 2013; Worsley, 1975). For instance, when introducing listening strategies to students, the teacher mentally prepares them to listen by encouraging them to consider the context of the upcoming discussion and to establish a purpose or goal for listening. The students stay in communication when another person is talking by actively signaling their listening engagement both nonverbally and verbally.

      It’s important to note that because students usually need time to think before speaking, the teacher should wait until a student breaks the silence instead of rephrasing or asking a new question. Similarly, aggressive students tend to monopolize discussions, while teachers need to call on shy students. To avoid these scenarios, the teacher can ask an overly talkative student to help by remaining silent. In addition, it is usually easier for shy students to speak in small groups than large ones, and once students have spoken in small-group situations, they will be less reluctant to do so in a larger group. With shy students, teachers can provide cues, give hints, suggest strategies, or draw attention to salient features or particular points of interest to support students as they get into the discussion. Teachers should also assure students that there is no one right answer. Most students are accustomed to discussion situations in which there is a single correct answer or conclusion, and once they realize that there are multiple correct answers, they will be less timid about responding creatively.

      Students need to feel that their opinions are valued. If a student makes an astute point that is ignored by the class, the teacher should point it out. Teachers should promote an appreciative atmosphere in the classroom; everyone—teachers and students alike—should value and really listen to what students say. Along those same lines, the discussions should be relevant to students’ lives and concerns. Teachers cannot and need not make everything seem immediately relevant, but whenever possible, they should apply the field of inquiry under discussion to everyday living.

      It’s important to maintain a collective environment to promote student responsibility and orchestrate turn-based discourse. An effective teacher reformulates questions and interpretations when needed or recaps and elaborates on perspectives to deepen the discussion. One way to keep the ball rolling is to allow breakout sessions in which students in pairs or small groups gather their thoughts about a particular concept or argument.

      While the students are in the midst of a discussion, the teacher can move to the back of the room or out of students’ line of sight to encourage student-to-student interaction, all while continually monitoring behaviors that may interfere with discussion. For instance, the teacher can keep track of student responses with verbal summaries or use of a public document, such as a chart on the SMART Board, overhead display, or dry-erase board. Or he or she can also use graphic organizers to synthesize student contributions while maintaining instructional focus on a certain new concept. This approach usually encourages both student listening and reflection.

      These techniques make classroom discussion effective and more manageable. They allow teachers to establish a learning-centered climate characterized by active engagement, dialogue, and multiway communication. They can also foster extensive collaboration between students and teachers for higher levels of reflective and critical thinking and creative problem solving.

Summary

      By verbalizing ideas and opinions during discussion, students not only deepen their understanding of subject content but also learn the important life skill of communication. Through discussion, the talk in classroom is no longer a monologue; students actively learn from each other. In fact, successful discussion prompts students to continuously refine, articulate, and synthesize their knowledge.

      To close the chapter, we include several handouts to help teachers effectively integrate discussions into the classroom. In the handout “Types of Student Discussions,” we look at the nine methods that Murphy et al. (2009) reference. There are many approaches to organizing student discussion around text, and various types of student discussion impact learning outcomes differently (such as text comprehension versus higher-order critical thinking). We recommend that teachers evaluate the students’ learning needs and select the method that is best aligned with the learning objectives.

      To further the use of a Socratic seminar, we’ve included a rubric on page 11 that defines levels of performance for students and clearly identifies the skills, knowledge, understanding, and conduct teachers expect students to demonstrate. The rubric may overwhelm students new to Socratic seminars, so more explanation may give students a better understanding of expectations.

      Finally, we include the “Student Self-Assessment of Discussion” handout (page 13). Students themselves are critical to the success of student-centered discussions. At the end of the discussion, the teacher can encourage students to reflect on what they’ve done well and what they can improve. This tool provides a sample format for student self-assessment.

Types of Student Discussions

Strategy	Description	Decision
Critical-analytic
Collaborative reasoning	In this strategy, “the teacher poses a central question deliberately chosen to evoke varying points of view. Students adopt a position on the issue and generate reasons that support their position. Using the text, as well as personal experiences and background knowledge, students proceed to evaluate reasons, to consider alternative points of view, and to challenge the arguments of others.” (Murphy et al., 2009, p. 742)	Appropriate Not Appropriate
Philosophy for children	Students share reading, listening, or viewing with their teacher and devise their own questions. They choose one question that interests them and, with the teacher’s help, discuss it. The teacher encourages students to welcome the diversity of initial views and then involves them in questioning assumptions, developing opinions with supporting reasons, analyzing significant concepts, and applying good reasoning and judgment.	Appropriate Not Appropriate
Paideia seminar	This strategy fosters critical and creative thinking through seminar dialogue, intellectual coaching, and mastery of information. It usually involves three steps: a preseminar content preparation, a seminar to discuss the ideas, and a postseminar process to assess participation and application of ideas.