These skills can be taught, but they require purposeful instruction. George Hillocks Jr. (2011) suggests introducing argument writing to students through the use of visual crime-solving mysteries that require them to analyze the scene for evidence and use the language of reasoning to make a claim, support the evidence with a warrant, and identify qualifications. Once students have grown more confident with the argument of fact (through crime-solving mysteries), they move to policy arguments (for example, paying students for school attendance). With experience, students are prepared to take on more complex arguments of judgment, addressing issues such as whether “survival of the fittest” is a sociological or biological construct.
In short, the CCSS ELA encourage the purposeful teaching of the elements of argumentation to expand students’ breadth and depth of formal writing. These rhetorical skills are essential as students progress through high school and into the postsecondary world of college and career. Students gain these rhetorical skills through small-group discussions and classroom discourse and as they read and write texts.
Shift Five: Focus on Academic Vocabulary and Language
A final shift in the Common Core standards concerns the development of academic vocabulary and language. As with the other major conceptual changes, this shift’s intent is to foster disciplinary links in order to build learning. This approach acknowledges that vocabulary should not be seen as an isolated list of words but rather as labels that we use as proxies for conceptual understandings. In fact, the language of the standards illuminates this idea. The CCSS note the use of “general academic and domain-specific words and phrases sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening” (NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 25). This focus underscores two key points: (1) academic vocabulary and language entail the use of a broad range of terms (lexical dexterity) and (2) vocabulary development extends beyond teaching decontextualized words (NGA & CCSSO, 2010b).
Much of the research underpinning this view of academic vocabulary and language comes from the work of Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, and Linda Kucan (2008), whose familiar three-tier model categorizes words and their instruction.
1. Tier one: These words are used in everyday speech, are used in the vocabulary of most native speakers, and are taught only in the primary grades. However, students who need more language support, such as English learners, will need instruction beyond the first years of schooling. Examples of tier one words include clock, happy, and baby (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002).
2. Tier two: These words (called general academic words and phrases in the CCSS) appear more often in texts than in verbal exchanges. For instance, winnow, boorish, and subsequent are examples of tier two words for high school students. In addition, they are used in many kinds of texts, not just those found within a specific discipline. These words need to be explicitly taught throughout the school years.
3. Tier three: These words (called domain-specific words and phrases in the CCSS) are closely associated with a specific content and also require specific instruction. Examples of such words and phrases in high school English include consonance, omniscient point of view, and stream of consciousness (Marzano & Pickering, 2005).
While teachers often give tier three words and phrases quite a bit of attention, tier two words are more often overlooked. After all, domain-specific words and phrases are closely tied to a discipline and a unit of instruction, and attention is therefore focused on knowing both the definition of the word and its associated concepts. Without instruction with tier two words, students can face more difficulty reading complex texts (NGA & CCSSO, 2010b). Knowing that a character winnowed his choices alerts the reader to his deliberative actions. The character’s subsequent boorish behavior conveys to the reader that the course of action he chose resulted in internal conflict that manifested itself outwardly. But unless attention is also provided for these words, readers of complex texts are not able to comprehend at a deeper level. Similarly, students will not use sophisticated terms in their expressive language.
Therefore, an important shift in the Common Core standards concerns the importance of using academic language and vocabulary throughout the school day. Special attention should be given to the types of academic language students require in order to express themselves and to understand the writings of others. Furthermore, the rush to profile domain-specific words and phrases can overshadow the importance of general academic vocabulary that students encounter in many kinds of texts. The investment in academic vocabulary and language is well worth it, as it is a form, tool, and mediator of thought (Marzano, 2003).
Purposes and Organization of the CCSS ELA
In the previous sections, we highlighted five major shifts in the way we look at the literacy development of students in grades 9–12 across the school day. As noted, a primary purpose of the CCSS is to prepare students for college or career choices. Insufficient literacy skills limit one’s choices in employment, careers, and postsecondary education. By spotlighting the importance of literacy development across grades K–12, we hope to collectively consider how 21st century instruction factors into students’ lives long after they have left our classrooms.
The CCSS spotlight college and career readiness with anchor standards. Anchor standards are the threads that tie the grade-level standards together, whether they are kindergarten standards or grade 12 standards. Anchor standards frame each language arts strand: Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening, and Language. Figure 1.3 explains the different elements of the Common Core State Standards for English language arts.
Source: Adapted from NGA & CCSSO, 2010a, p. 20.
Figure 1.3: How to read the CCSS ELA.
In the next three chapters, we utilize the anchor standards as a means for fostering the work of collaborative planning teams. The following principles for college and career readiness shape these anchor standards and describe the growing capabilities of learners as they progress through school. To be college and career ready, students must do the following (NGA & CCSSO, 2010a).
• Demonstrate independence: Students must comprehend complex texts in all content areas, participate as speakers and listeners in academic discussions and presentations, direct their own learning, and utilize resources.
• Build strong content knowledge across all subjects and disciplines: Cross-discipline knowledge is important for students’ writing and discussions. In addition, students should engage in the research and study skills needed to build their content knowledge.
• Respond to the varying demands of audience, task, purpose, and discipline: College-and career-ready students communicate through speaking and writing with a range of audiences and are knowledgeable about the variances of discipline-specific evidence.
• Comprehend as well as critique: Students learn this skill as they read and listen to others. They are able to ask questions, evaluate information, and discern reasonableness.
• Value evidence: Students should provide evidence in their own oral and written discourse and expect others to furnish evidence.
• Use technology and digital media strategically and capably: As they integrate online and offline resources, students should use critical-thinking and communication skills within their digital lives.
• Understand other perspectives and cultures: In order to better communicate with and learn from and alongside people, students should understand a wide range of cultural and experiential backgrounds.
The principles and assumptions that guided development of the anchor standards provide