at
people instead of
with
people,
relaying factual information or phrases memorized from TV shows without responding to what their listener is saying or doing. Thus
individuals with Asperger’s may have extensive vocabularies, but difficulty using it in a fluid way to make conversation in social
situations. High-functioning individuals, like those with more language difficulties, may also have trouble with abstract language and
tend to interpret things literally. For example, if a teacher said, “Don’t let the cat out of the bag,” a literal interpretation would have
a student looking for a cat and a bag. In addition, many students with autism may have trouble processing language when there
are competing sights and sounds. Thus using language alone to explain complicated material may sometimes be less effective than
supplementing the explanation with concrete visual information that supports the verbal explanation (Quill, 1995).
Repetitive and ritualistic behaviors reflect a preference for sameness and repetition with regards to interests, daily routine, and
body movements. Many youngsters with autism develop a fascination with a particular area of interest and elaborate on that interest
to the exclusion of learning about new things. For example, I knew a youngster who became obsessed with vacuum cleaners and
was reluctant to attend to or talk about anything else. Many individuals with autism also exhibit nonfunctional routines that appear
superstitious in nature. One individual I worked with had to hang every picture in the house at a crooked angle before he could use
the toilet. Other students may not have nonfunctional routines, but prefer that their daily routines occur the same way all the time
and may become very anxious or upset when changes or transitions are introduced. Youngsters may also demonstrate repetition in
their use of language (repeating the same phrase over and over) or in their physical movements (e.g., repetitive hand flapping, body
rocking, or twirling around).
Because of the difficulties individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders have in negotiating social situations and handling
changes in their environment, many students experience stress, frustration and anxiety on an almost constant basis (Kim, Szatmari,
Bryson, Streiner, & Wilson, 2000; Myles & Southwick, 1999). Wanting to interact with another student but not knowing how,
not understanding the change in teacher directions for a new challenging task, hearing other students laugh around them, and
not knowing whether they are the target of the joke—these are all stressful situations that youths with Autism Spectrum Disorders
experience daily.
Despite this level of stress, it is important to point out the emotional variability among students with Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Some students rarely seem to get upset, as they may handle their stress by withdrawal and go virtually unnoticed. Others present
with additional anxiety disorders (e.g., Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Social Phobia, or Panic Disorder). Some students seem to be
constantly frustrated, impulsive, and have frequent tantrums. Many of these individuals may also be diagnosed with Attention Deficit
Disorder or a Mood Disorder (e.g., Bipolar Disorder). Although students may react and cope with the stresses in their lives quite
differently, they may share a similar reason for experiencing high levels of stress, as described below.
xiii
Given the variety of symptoms and levels of intellectual functioning among individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders, a number
of researchers have theorized about the core underlying problem within the disorders. Three, perhaps related, theories have received
the most attention:
1.
Frith (1989) suggests that autistic individuals lack the ability to simultaneously integrate the multiple language, social and
emotional messages typically present in social situations. Something about their neurological functioning makes it difficult to
assimilate and organize all the pertinent information. Since most social situations have multiple levels of sensory input, autistic
individuals do not always fully grasp what is happening or how to respond. Instead, they may attend to and process only a
fragment of the social experience, resulting in repetitive and atypical social behavior.
2.
Baron-Cohen (1995) suggests that the core problem is the inability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others, a
process termed “theory of mind.” Thus, autistic individuals have difficulty taking other people’s perspectives.
3.
Hobson (1996) suggests that autism involves the inability to perceive and understand emotional expressions. This would
then lead to difficulties in perspective taking and subsequent problems in social interaction.
These three theories can be considered complementary. Both Baron-Cohen and Hobson’s theories suggest that autistic individuals
cannot easily empathize with or understand another person’s view of the world. Frith’s theory helps explain why. The inability to
simultaneously integrate information about what is happening in a social situation makes it difficult to imagine what others might be
thinking and feeling. To take another’s perspective, one has to synthesize information about the other person (e.g., the person’s recent
past experiences and preferences), along with what is happening to the person.
Most social skills rely on the ability to mentally adopt another person’s perspective. For example, knowing why to say hello when
you greet someone is based on understanding how others might think or feel if you ignore them rather than greet them. Knowing
when to stop talking, take turns, respond to others’ initiations, compromise, help others, or share, all come naturally when a person
can easily take another’s perspective. However, these social skills do not come naturally to autistic individuals, and must be taught
explicitly if they are going to be mastered. The Social Skills Pictures that follow attempt to do just that—break down social skills into
their components and make explicit what to do and say in social situations, and why.
The Importance of Visual Aids in Teaching Those with Autism Spectrum Disorders
As described earlier, autistic individuals often have language processing difficulties including: (a) for classically autistic individuals,
difficulties comprehending language, (b) for high-functioning individuals, difficulties with abstract language, and (c) for many autistic
individuals, difficulty attending to verbal explanations when there is competing visual and auditory information. Visual aids can often
facilitate both attention and language comprehension.