The above-stated possible reasons for Wyclif ’s neglect of sentential discourse, that it was going out of fashion and that his Latin was not up to it, lead me to consider another possibility: he elected to spend more time and effort on the Scripture track, coming up with an ambitious plan to produce postils on the entire Old and New Testaments. Though there seems to be nothing of his own in these commentaries, he must have preferred to produce a routine biblical commentary, unusual for his day, to creating yet another commonplace Sentences summary. His plan had the distinct advantage of giving him a supreme mastery of the Word of God, to prepare him for his lectures.
Bible Study at Oxford: Graduate Students and Extracurricular Auditors
We can only conjecture whether Wyclif ’s concentration upon the Bible during his theological studies and doctoral teaching had an immediate effect upon the way in which the Bible was taught at Oxford. It would not seem that his postils were a great success, since they survive, if at all, only in scattered copies,20 and there is no indication that anyone after him attempted a similar feat, even in part.
It is assumed that Wyclif lectured from his postils between 1371 and 1376.21 But every theology master must have lectured on the books of the Bible in his own way. And, contrary to what is often stated, I argue below that such lectures could be attended not only by arts masters who were proceeding to a degree in theology, but also by clerical auditors who came to the university with no intention of obtaining a degree.
Who were the clergy who went to Oxford to study the Bible? John Moorman, writing about the thirteenth century, says that rectors of parishes “were sent to the Universities for a few years not to read the usual ‘arts’ course but to study such subjects as would enable them to serve more efficiently in the parishes. Among the many licences which were granted to men who wished to leave their parishes for a time ‘to frequent the schools’ we find that some went to read theology, some Canon Law, while a few made the Bible the special object of their studies.”22 He finds the latter group of students specified under the designations “in Sacra Pagina” and “in Sacra Scriptura,”23 but these phrases were simply different ways of designating theology: in other words, theology itself was thought of as primarily the study of the Bible.
In his recent book on study leaves for parish clergy, Donald Logan has found that well over a thousand curates (rectors) were given permissions in the first half of the fourteenth century from the diocese of Lincoln alone. They went to university (overwhelmingly to Oxford) for a few years to improve themselves.24 Logan, however, believes that they would not have been allowed to study the Bible, because the MA was required for incepting in theology.25 But, as we saw above, the curates he is speaking of, for the most part, like the majority of other students at Oxford, did not intend to get a degree,26 and it would follow that they were under no constraint to follow degree programs.27
It is true that almost all of the licenses for study leave in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries refer only to studium litterarum, but this should not make us think that the rectors studied only arts courses. The licenses are simply following the text of Boniface VIII’s decretal Cum ex eo in the Liber Sextus, issued in 1298, allowing new appointees to rectorships to put off progression to the priesthood while in studies.28 John Andrew in the Ordinary Gloss to the Sext (finished in 1304 or 1305) says at litterarum that because the pope does not make distinctions, he understands it as a general expression, to refer to grammar, canon or civil law, or theology.29 The decretal allows dispensations for as long as seven years, and Andrew comments, “Note that a scholar should be proficient (provectus) in seven years,” adding that a five-year period of proficiency is specified for a theology student in an earlier decretal, and the same period is set elsewhere for a student in civil law.30 It is noteworthy that six of the priests studied by Logan who were given study leave were specifically allowed to study theology or canon law, even though they did not have the MA.31
We can get some notion of how such short-term concentrations operated from William Lyndwood, writing in the 1420s,32 who himself received such a license and dispensation when he was a deacon (in his case to complete his doctorate in both laws).33 Commenting on Archbishop John Peckham’s 1281 constitution requiring those practicing as advocates in court to have studied canon and civil law for at least three years (“nisi prius ad minus per triennium audiverit jus canonicum et civile cum debita diligentia”), Lyndwood says that the stipulated time in Roman civil law for advocates is five years. He suggests that Peckham lessened the requirement only for those working in the smaller church courts, where three years of experience in cases and in studying practice and theory seems sufficient (“in talibus namque sufficere videtur quod aliquis sit exercitatus in causis et habeat practicam cum speculativo per triennium”). The would-be advocate must study as the disciple of a master or doctor (“ut discipulus sub magistro sive doctore”); the constitution seemingly allows the study to take place not only in a university (“studium generale”) but elsewhere as well; Lyndwood, however, thinks otherwise: one should audit the laws under a doctor in a place where such laws are publicly taught (“quod debeat jura audire sub doctore in loco ubi jura hujusmodi publice docentur”). Afterward, the student can prove that he has fulfilled the forensic requirement by the testimony of the doctor under whom he studied (“per testimonium doctoris sub quo studuit”), or by a testimonial letter from the chancellor of the university where he studied (“litera testimonialis cancelarii universitatis in qua studuit”).34
As for the curriculum to be followed by these three-year students, Lyndwood recommends that, even though the statute specifies both canon and civil law, they limit themselves to canon law, learning only such provisions of civil law as are cited in glosses to the canons; otherwise, they will be able to learn neither subject well.35
I take it that most of the rectors who went to Oxford to study theology spent their specified years of leave in a similar way, being able to set up their own individual programs of study.
We saw in Chapter 2 that Simple Creature condemned a supposedly new proposal that would put an end to the immediate access to Bible study that curates now enjoyed and force them to spend nine or ten years in the arts beforehand. It is important to look at his words on this point, because they have been mistakenly interpreted as a knowledgeable reference to a curricular squabble that occurred in Oxford in 1388, hence providing a sound date for his time of writing. He says:
But alas! alas! alas! The most [greatest] abomination that ever was heard among Christian clerks is now purposed in England, by worldly clerks and feigned religious, and in the chief university of our realm, as many true men tell with great wailing. This horrible and Devil’s cursedness is purposed of Christ’s enemies and traitors of all Christian people, that no man shall learn divinity, neither Holy Writ, no but he that hath done his form in art, that is, that hath commenced in art, and hath been regent twain year after; this would be nine year either ten before that he learn Holy Writ.36
After proceeding to talk about the general degeneracy of morals at Oxford, and especially sodomy and simony, he returns to the subject of impeding the learning of Scripture:
Yet on these three abominations God would graciously convert clerks, if they would do very [true] penance, and give them wholly to virtues; but on the fourth most abomination37 purposed now to let [prevent] Christian men, yea, priests and curates, to learn freely God’s Law, till they have spent nine year either ten at art (that comprehendeth many strong errors of heathen men against Christian belief), it seemeth well that God will not cease of vengeance till it and other be punished sore; for it seemeth that worldly clerks and feigned religious do this, that simple men of wit and of finding know not God’s Law, to preach it generally against sins in the realm. But wit ye, worldly clerks and feigned religious, that God both can and may, if it liketh [pleases] Him, speed simple men out[side] of the university as much to ken Holy Writ as masters in the university; and therefore no great charge though never man of good will be poisoned with heathen men’s errors nine year either ten, but ever live well and study Holy Writ by old doctors and new, and preach