Ayoub writes that “the imāms, for Shi‘i Muslims, may be thought of as a primordial idea in the mind of God which found temporal manifestation in persons occupying a position midway between human and divine beings.”53 This does not mean that these hereditary divine guides are something other than physically created sentient beings, for they are subject to death, just like any other human being. But their uniqueness rests in the critical place they occupy in maintaining the cosmic harmony of the universe. They are, first and foremost, products of divine thought, mirroring the Creator’s mental blueprint of order for the world. Beginning, then, as pure thought in the worldly conception of the Divine, they became manifest as “luminous entities or conventicles of light in the loins of prophets and wombs of holy women until they reached actualization in the Prophet Muḥammad.”54 The imāms are thus seen as “light upon light,” an image used by the sixth imām, Jafar al-Sadiq, to describe the illuminated pattern of imāmi̅ succession. The imāms, embodying pure light that has passed from the beginning of time through successive generations of prophets, are known as al-nūr al-muḥammadi̅, the “light of Muhammad.” The bearer of light, the interpreter of revelation, and the source of knowledge must be both physically and spiritually pure. He is further seen as the perfect man, the possessor of infallibility. This characteristic above all endows the imām with a special spiritual aura resulting from his gnosis, upon which he draws to fulfill his central religious duty.
Because the Twelver branch of the Shi‘ah philosophically perceives religion to have mutually dependent external/exoteric (ẓāhir) and internal/esoteric (bāṭin) factors, there is a need for a spiritual leader who is entrusted with the divinely given metaphysical knowledge that allows him to act as an interpreter of God’s revelations and the Prophet’s teachings. The figure of the imām is the physical embodiment of God’s primordial and divine trust (amānah). He alone can communicate divine knowledge to humans, and therefore he must always be present in some form on earth. According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, the basic task of each successive imām, above and beyond all other aspects of mundane life, is to guide the faithful from the external to the internal, toward the source of their existence.55 The imām is, in this capacity, the entrusted being who guides the seeker of religious knowledge on an inner journey by performing the proper exegesis (ta’vi̅l) necessary to facilitate the adept’s spiritual progress.56
Although the world can be without a prophet, it can never be without an imām, according to Shi‘i theologians. The figure of the imām therefore must always be present on earth to serve as an interpreter of revelation. He is a vital link in a chain of authorities that must always be represented on earth, either physically or theoretically, in each successive generation. Only he has the capacity to understand and interpret that which no other earthly being can.57 The role of the imām, then, is absolutely critical for the proper functioning of the world. Nasr suggests that the imām’s threefold functions and duties are “to rule over the community of Muslims as the representative of the Prophet, to interpret the religious sciences and the Law to men, especially their inner meaning, and to guide men in the spiritual life.”58 Ayoub adds that “if the concept or ideal of the imām embodies all spiritual and physical perfections for the Shi̅‘i̅s, then Imām Ḥusayn can be regarded as the living perfection, or concretization of this ideal.”59 Husayn is, of course, an integral part of the chain of unbroken tradition, for he manifests the mystical light mentioned above and acts as the vicarious bearer of all the world’s suffering. Indeed, the whole prophetic silsilah (chain) partakes in this suffering and pain, for hagiographic and legendary sources all point to the predetermination of Husayn’s martyrdom. For example, when Husayn arrived at Karbala on the second of Muharram, it is reported that he prayed, knowing that he had arrived at the place of sorrow (karb) and calamity (balā’) where his blood would be shed, according to his grandfather’s prediction.60
Ayoub eloquently documents the eternal participation of all the prophets in Husayn’s suffering.61 Adam, Noah, Abraham, Jesus, and Muhammad each shared in the pain of the violent acts at Karbala. Their suffering, resulting from foreknowledge of the Karbala incident, has potent teleological significance, but it is merely a prelude to Husayn’s own suffering and death. His self-sacrifice is the final act of the cosmic drama that encompasses all creatures—past, present, and future—in a recurrent test of faith and piety to guarantee the ultimate reward of vindication from all sinful acts performed on the face of the earth.62 It is believed that even as a child Husayn had foreknowledge of his tragic end and knew of his unique, predetermined role in God’s divine plan. It is written that when the Prophet was asked if he had explained Husayn’s future fate to him, Muhammad replied: “No, his knowledge is my knowledge, and my knowledge is his, for we know of the recurrence of events before they occur.”63 It is important to my immediate concerns here that tradition states that Husayn learned after his death of his elevated yet humble status of being a mediator between man and God on qi̅yāmat, the Day of Judgment.
The social, theological, and psychological ramifications of Husayn’s role as intercessor are far-reaching. The Mu‘tāzili̅ scholar ibn Umar Zamakshari utilized the idea of tashabbuh (imitation)64 to explain that “according to religious traditions anyone who weeps for Ḥusayn is certainly destined to join him in eternity.”65 This idea is also expressed in certain key passages from ta‘zi̅yeh scripts such as the following:
[The Prophet]: Sorrow not, dear grandchild; thou shalt be a mediator, too, in that day. At present thou art thirsty, but tomorrow thou shalt be the distributor of the water of Al Kauser [in Paradise].
[Gabriel, bringing the key of Paradise and delivering it to the Prophet]: He who has seen most trials, endured most afflictions, and been most patient in his sufferings, the same shall win the privilege of intercession. He shall raise the standard of intercession on the Day of Judgement who hath voluntarily put his head under the sword of trial, ready to have it cloven in two like the point of a pen. Take thou this key of intercession from me, and give it to him who has undergone the greatest trials.
[Gabriel, speaking for Allah]: The privilege of making intercession for sinners is exclusively his. Husain is, by My peculiar grace, the mediator for all.
[The Prophet, handing over the key]: Go thou and deliver from the flames every one who has in his life-time shed but a single tear for thee, every one who has in any way helped thee, every one who has performed a pilgrimage to thy shrine, or mourned for thee, and everyone who has written tragic verse for thee. Bear each and all with thee to Paradise.66
These illuminating passages, combined with Zamakshari’s exegesis, clearly suggest that salvation is guaranteed for all mourners. They also reinforce the importance of making physical pilgrimages to Husayn’s actual tomb at Karbala.67 Elizabeth Fernea, for example, writing about her observation of other participants on her pilgrimage to the sacred site, notes: “At first I wondered why on earth they had brought this sick child to Karbala in such heat, but the obvious answer came. Dying on pilgrimage assures the soul immediate entrance into heaven.”68 Interpreting the observance from this indigenous point of view concretizes the notion that participating in annual renewal on the human level is not only desirable but also absolutely necessary.
Participation in the annual muḥarram renewal is humankind’s chief role and responsibility in this lifetime. Through participation in the performance of passion, systems of abstract theological meaning are shaped into emotional, experiential, and subjective local forms of knowledge comprehensible to the individual and his community. Much of the symbolic and emotive potency that has motivated the continuation