Generally speaking, the literati did not use the rigid outline technique in these simplified paintings but began to use the brush in innovative ways. Artwork by the court-appointed artists was often criticized as lacking in vitality and as being stagnant; the literati, on the other hand, were using their own creative ideas, and their spontaneous and energized methods in painting were a refreshing change. Their simplified but sometimes bold use of the brush would often capture the spirit of the subject, and could convey a wide range of expression, from dynamic power to elegance and tranquility. This is the art style that I term sumi-e.
Zen Buddhist monks from China introduced the Northern Sung style of paintings to Japan during the Muromachi period in the fourteenth century. These works reflected the oppressive grandeur that was so characteristic of the Northern Sung. During the fifteenth century, as the monks brought the newer, more flexible styles of Southern Sung and Yuan to Japan, new trends in artistic expression began there.
This was also a time when other great changes were taking place in Japan and the warrior classes came to power. With the advent of the Tokugawa Shogunate system of government in 1603, a new era of social stability emerged in the nation and there was now time to cultivate the arts. Zen Buddhism exerted a powerful influence on the warrior classes who no longer were required to spend time in endless territorial or civil wars. A newly developed pastime for these upper classes was chado, tea ceremony, which influenced Japanese arts of all kinds toward greater elegance and refinement.
During this same period in China under the Ming and Ching dynasties, in place of the black ink outlines, a new style of art emerged using vibrant and opulent colors. Limited by the court-appointed artists system, this art too reached a point of stagnation. But when the Ching Dynasty came into power, the emperor promoted literary education as well as suibokuga in the style of the Southern Sung. As a consequence art reached a high point in refinement, both in craftsmanship and artistic expression.
However, the literati throughout these periods refused to be caught up in the trends and fashions of the times and retained their belief that paintings should capture the spirit (not all the physical details) of the object or theme. From their viewpoint, intricate paintings with minute details were merely an “explanation”; they did not convey the spirit of the subject. Compared to the art’s beginnings based in Northern Sung style, the brush strokes were now reduced in number and simplified and were often combined with poetry. This style of painting, whether done by the Chinese literati (wen jen) or the Japanese literati (bunjin), suggested the subject, rather than describing its details. Importantly, the bunjin artists also recognized the importance of active empty space: the viewer was stimulated to become a participator in the painting. This active empty space is an important component of the style.
Also during the Ming and Ching dynasties, another style of color painting was developed that adapted some sumi-e brush handling techniques. Unlike the sumi-e approach where several tones of sumi were applied to the bristles of one brush to create a gradation, this time, color pigments were applied to the bristles to create a gradient blend of colors. Often black ink was also incorporated as part of the painting. This technique is still commonly seen in contemporary Chinese paintings.
Even this very brief history of the emergence of painting with sumi (black ink) shows us that in both suiboku-ga and sumi-e, and even in paintings using color, the focus of the art of ink painting since its inception has been on the quality of the line; this is what captures the form. In the art of the West, the focus is generally more on color to develop the form.
As we move on to the details and process of creating ink paintings, we will look at and create paintings of both kinds, in order to understand suiboku-ga and sumi-e more deeply.
Although it is composed of only a few types of sumi-e strokes—wide to wide, wide to narrow, and narrow-wide-narrow—bamboo can express many moods. The empty space at the right top plays an active role.
CHAPTER 1
The Art of Black Ink
The Relationship between Calligraphy and Painting
Among the historical differences between European-based cultures and the Far East is the method and tools of writing, so important for communication and keeping records. From the earliest times, a brush was used for writing in China and this practice continues today in many areas of Asia. The use of the brush as a tool in both writing and painting makes it difficult to draw a clear demarcation between them; there is an overlap between the utilitarian and the fine arts.
As we learned earlier, during the periods in history when China was ruled by emperors, among the populace were very well educated landlords and priests who were accustomed to dealing with brush, ink and paper every day. During their daily activities of copying sutras or writing documents for the government, they would take a break from their work to enjoy composing poetry and often would add a simple paintings to their work. Whether one would call it writing or painting, these works by the literati gradually became recognized as a genre of art. In Japanese their work is called bunjin-ga (bun = letter, jin = person, ga = painting).
It has been recorded that the earliest Chinese paper appeared around 206 B.C. during the Han Dynasty. It is generally supposed that the fibers from various plants woven for clothing, such as varieties of flax, were also used for making of paper. Archaeological finds in remote Chinese provinces include paper made from flax. Eventually fibers from other plants began to be used. As papermaking developed from the primitive to the sophisticated, the making of sumi ink from soot was also perfected. As the availability of paper became widespread and brushes of various types and sizes were developed, both writing and painting undoubtedly became more commonplace. In the Far Eastern countries down through the ages, all documents and other written forms of communication required sumi ink and brush, until European cultural influences brought new ways to write. Today, the world over, the convenience of ballpoint pens, fountain pens and pencils makes them a daily necessity. And computer-generated text—e-mails and such—has taken over much writing.
Yet, writing with a brush continues today. In contemporary Japan, every first grader in school learns to write with a brush in a special class reserved for calligraphy. In contrast to pens and pencils, the use of a brush, whether for calligraphy or painting, carries with it established methods and rules both historically and traditionally developed. The various types of brushes and the effect they leave on the various kinds of paper are of paramount importance. The amount of ink the brush can hold must be controlled and the effects created when painting lines, from wide to narrow, in tones from dark to light, requires knowledge, skill and experience. When one is taught as a child, this may become routine, but when an adult is confronted with brush, ink and paper for the first time, it can be a daunting challenge.
Learning some basic lessons from writing can help you. The brush is used in a similar way for both calligraphy and painting, and I feel that learning the use of brush through calligraphy brings better understanding of the basic qualities of lines for a painting. Therefore, I consider this a very important first step.
When writing with a ballpoint pen, one moves the tip continuously across the paper, but when writing with a brush, one often lifts it up and then down as it moves across the paper in order to create a line which narrows or widens. When writing with a brush, the movement will be a combination of right to left and up and down. This simple movement appears to be easy, yet it is difficult to master. Here are some helpful ways to learn and embody the key principles and to make a physical connection with sumi-e.
KNOWING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PEN AND A BRUSH: ENERGY
To understand the difference between the use of a brush and a ballpoint pen, let us first turn to the ideogram dai (“great,” “big”).
• Use your pointing finger as an imaginative brush, and trace the character on the next page. Beginning on the left end of