He then finishes with a comment urging warriors to surpass colleagues and prevail amid the rivalry that characterized warrior life. “A young warrior should be strong headed.” (1-106) Furthermore, “A samurai should be excessively obstinate. Anything done in moderation will fall short of your goals. If you feel that you are doing more than is needed, it will be just right.” (1-188)
Jōchō also advises prudence. “The best course of action is to first take a step back, understand the depths and shallows of various matters, and avoid provoking indignation in your master.” (2-8) Then again, he advises against judiciousness. “A calculating man is a coward. This is because he considers everything from the perspective of loss and gain, and his mind never deviates from this track. To him, death is a loss, and life is a gain.” (1-111) Often he sponsors rash acts, completely disregarding the outcome. “To retaliate entails just frenetically throwing yourself at your adversary with the intention of being cut down. Being killed this way brings no shame. Thinking about how to win may result in missing the best opportunity to act.” (1-55) This action is represented by another couple of keywords in Hagakure—kichigai and shini-gurui, or the “mad death frenzy.” “In any case, just give yourself over to insanity and sacrifice yourself to the task. That’s all you need to do. If you attempt to solve problems through careful manoeuvring, doubts will creep in and paralyze your mind, and you will fail miserably.” (1-193)
If all these incongruities were not confusing enough, the conflict that arises between “secret love” in loyalty and in the man-love relationships called shudō adds to the complexity of the dynamics of human relations depicted in the book. “The essential point in shudō is preparation to forfeit your life for the sake of your lover. Otherwise you risk humiliation. On the other hand, though, this means that you would be unable to surrender your life in the service of your lord. Through this contradiction, I came to realize that in shudō, you should love your partner, but not love him at the same time.” (1-181) Shudō is depicted as the purest form of reverential bonding between two males, based on ineffaceable trust and appreciation of each other’s inner qualities.
These are just a few examples of the multifarious nature of the content and contradictory tenets of advice that create a degree of abstruseness that leaves the message of Hagakure open for interpretation. This is precisely why reading Hagakure without a basic understanding of the complexities of the Tokugawa warrior community of honor, the samurai ethno-mentality, and, to a degree, local knowledge of Saga and its personalities, leaves one with the impression that the content is just the mad ramblings of a disgruntled old man. To be sure, the text undeniably contains a degree of this, too, and like any human being, Yamamoto Jōchō certainly had good and bad days when reminiscing to Tsuramoto. In fact, some sections of Hagakure were probably relayed with a grin, and even an element of humor can be detected, if one looks for it.
Many of the apparent inconsistencies in Hagakure can be assuaged by simply being aware of who—or what—level of samurai each vignette is directed toward. It is a common mistake to lump all samurai together, but there were many ranks within their world, and the responsibilities and expectations of each were markedly different. Therefore, the ideal deportment and style of loyalty differed as well. For instance, Olivier Ansart makes a distinction between two broad types of loyalty: middle-ranked samurai and below personified “symbolic service,” whereas “loyalty of counsel” was required of high-ranked warriors.15
Middle- to lower-ranked samurai were encouraged to engage in unconditional service and blind obedience, being prepared to frenetically sacrifice their own lives by entering a “frenzy of death” with purity of intention. The low-ranked warrior had no influence on how the domain was governed, or what his lord thought. The only realistic homage they could pay to their lord was expressed using their martial skill and spirit in violent or self-sacrificial acts. This included frenzied fights to the death that reflected on the lord’s reputation of having valorous, decisive warriors in his domain. The samurai were essentially expendable pawns who could only dream of upward social mobility premised on selfless service from a young age. If he was noticed by his lord for acts of gallantry, or for is outstanding attributes, he could live in hope of being promoted to a higher position up the ranks. This, however, was very much the exception rather than the norm.
On the other hand, the “loyalty of counsel” was reserved for upper-ranking samurai. To fulfill their important duty of counselling the lord, as well as remonstrating with him for his transgressions for his and the domain’s benefit, required skills in diplomacy, selfless resolve, wisdom, and prudence. Honor was found in the act of offering judicious, yet discreet, advice. This, too, was a precarious existence, as it might mean sacrificing one’s life to take the blame for a lord’s foolishness, or to atone for angering him. In both virtual and counsel-based forms of loyalty, the important mind-set was to act in accordance with a single-minded, pure will and intention, referred to throughout the pages of Hagakure as ichinen.
All that matters is having single-minded purpose ( ichinen), in the here and now. Life is an ongoing succession of ‘one will’ at a time, each and every moment. A man who realizes this truth need not hurry to do, or seek, anything else anymore. Just live in the present with single-minded purpose. People forget this important truth, and keep seeking other things to accomplish. (2-17)
A warrior who can demonstrate such resolve and purity in thought and action is hailed as a kusemono. In modern Japanese parlance, kusemono has negative connotations, indicating an eccentric or abnormal person—a quintessential weirdo. The kusemono depicted in Hagakure, however, represents the supreme warrior. Such an ideal man could be relied upon to always be there in a calamity, but remained behind the scenes when not needed. “Exceptional warriors (kusemono) are dependable men. Dependable men are exceptional warriors. I know this through considerable experience. Dependable men can be relied upon to keep away when things are going well, but will come to your aid without fail when you are in need. A man of such temperament is most certainly a kusemono.” (1-132)
The presence of the kusemono is pervasive throughout Hagakure. The kusemono is the archetypical warrior whom Jōchō aspired to be, and the unnamed hero of the book. It is the kusemono who embodies the essence of Hagakure’s bushido.
CONCLUSION
This introductory chapter was written with the intention of contextualizing the myriad of influences that resulted in the writing of, and subsequent fascination with, this collection of guileless but sometimes quixotic aphorisms known as Hagakure. Controversial from the beginning, modified interpretations of the text’s mentality in the twentieth century made the book particularly useful for stirring ultra-nationalistic sentiment and inculcating militarism. Consequently, Hagakure temporarily became a “forbidden text” of sorts again in the aftermath of World War II. Gradually, though, Japan entered a period of renewed interest in Hagakure from the 1960s. Renowned historians such as Furukawa Tetsushi and authors such as Mishima Yukio acclaimed Hagakure as representing the most exquisitely “beautiful” aspects of Japanese culture that had been indiscriminately purged in the immediate post-war period.
Western interest in the book was also piqued with a growing fascination for samurai culture and philosophy, especially following Japan’s rise as an economic superpower in the 1980s. In recent years, a handful of translations into modern Japanese have become available, as have several English language translations that seek to introduce the “wisdom” of Hagakure to a wide international readership.
Given the historical importance of the work for understanding the samurai psyche, it is hardly surprising that a number of English translations have already been published. This begs the question as to why it is necessary to produce yet another. Although the extant translations are reliable to varying degrees, they often tend to gloss over the