1.1. Utopia. Ou Topos or Eu Topos?
M. I. Finley States:
Utopian ideas and fantasies, like all ideas and fantasies, grow up as well as other ideas and fantasies, grow out of the society to which they are a response. Neither the ancient world nor the modern world is an unchanging entity, and any analyses of Utopian thinking which neglects social changes in the course of the history of either antiquity or modern times is likely at some point to go badly wrong. (Finley 1967: 33)
Utopia is a social fantasy, imagined social ideal, whose illusionary model established in the antique epoch in European thinking found its way to development in the context of world social-cultural processes, and starting from the Middle Ages, it played an important role in the history of public life.
The beginning of utopia can be found in the mythological past. Discussing the genesis of utopia, Robert C. Elliot quotes Arthur Koestler: All Utopias, – writes Arthur Koestler, – are fed from the sources of mythology; the social engineer’s blueprints are merely revised editions of the ancient text (Elliot 1970: 3). The ←15 | 16→God Cronos and the “Golden Age” can be considered as the mythological archetype of utopia.
Cronus was the leader and the youngest of the first generation of Titans, divine descendants of Gaia, the earth, and Uranus, the sky. As Georgian scholar Rismag Gordeziani describes it, “according to the myths, Cronus fought against his father, who oppressed his children, and by using the sickle cut off the limb of fertility” (Gordeziani 1997: 16). After overthrowing his father, Cronus became the ruler of the world:
During the times of Cronus men were born and were bred. They lived carelessly. Mother Earth gave them such riches that they did not have to worry about frost, or heat, diseases or wisdom. People at those times did not know what death was; they lived for ages and death was nothing but transformation. As in dreams, they disappeared and would become kind demons dwelling in the world. Their lives did not request laws or dreadful wars, as well as arguments. They had everything they wanted and worked as much as they wanted. During the times of Cronus people were happy. That is why they are often called people of the Golden Age. (Gordeziani 1997: 23)
Cronus learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be dethroned by his own sons, just as he had overthrown his father. As a result, although he sired the gods Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Hades and Poseidon by Rhea, he devoured them all as soon as they were born, to pre-empt the prophecy. Zeus, was the only one surviving his father’s punishment, was fatal for Cronus: He overthrew his father and became the ruler of the living and the dead.
The myth is a clear example of the duality of Cronus’ character: On the one hand, Cronus was an ideal ruler, King, during whose reign humans knew nothing about fear, sorrow or pain and gave them perfect conditions to live in; on the other hand, he was a villain, the one who castrated his own father and ate his children for only one purpose: to gain autocratic rule. The iconography of Cronus is complex, possessing both positive and negative symbolism, while on the positive side we have realized dreams, and on the negative side, we have the brutal efforts made to achieve this kind of utopia.
What was the fate of the positive and negative motives constructed in the ancient myth? How each of them found realization in literature?
The positive idea of a utopian society depicted in the myth of Cronus has been successfully used by the writers and thinkers of the ancient era. Hesiod’s “Works and Days” can be considered as an archetypal text, where the author outlined the ideal side of Cronus’ character and offered the model of Golden Age literature to the contemporary society:
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First of all [110] the deathless gods who dwell on Olympus made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the time of Cronos when he was reigning in heaven. And they lived like gods [115] without sorrow of heart, remote and free from toil and grief: miserable age rested not on them; but with legs and arms never failing they made merry with feasting beyond the reach of all evils. When they died, it was as though they were overcome with sleep, and they had all good things; for the fruitful earth unforced bare them fruit abundantly and without stint. They dwelt in ease and peace upon their lands with many good things, [120] rich in flocks and loved by the blessed gods.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0020,002:121
The Golden Age depicted in Hesiod’s work can be regarded as the first utopian text. But not only did Hesiod write about the Golden Age, but his main aim was to compare it to his contemporary society and perceived future as the demolition of the past idyll:
[174] Thereafter, would that I were not among the men of the fifth generation, [175] but either had died before or been born afterwards. For now truly is a race of iron, and men never rest from labor and sorrow by day, and from perishing by night; and the gods shall lay sore trouble upon them. But, notwithstanding, even these shall have some good mingled with their evils. [180] And Zeus will destroy this race of mortal men also when they come to have grey hair on the temples at their birth. The father will not agree with his children, nor the children with their father, nor guest with his host, nor comrade with comrade; nor will brother be dear to brother as aforetime. [185] Men will dishonor their parents as they grow quickly old, and will carp at them, chiding them with bitter words, hard-hearted they, not knowing the fear of the gods. They will not repay their aged parents the cost of their nurture, for might shall be their right: and one man will sack another’s city. [190] There will be no favor for the man who keeps his oath or for the just or for the good; but rather men will praise the evil-doer and his violent dealing. Strength will be right, and reverence will cease to be; and the wicked will hurt the worthy man, speaking false words against him, and will swear an oath upon them.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0020,002:180
Where does the utopian idyll of Cronos disappear? Why is the positive system replaced by the negative one?
These principal questions go unanswered in the work of Hesiod, but the desire of repeating the Golden Age found its place in the romantic spirit of humans. “Utopian Harmony”, which was based on the total understanding between human and nature, human and God, became the symbol of eternal beauty, justice, and equality. The intellectual concept of utopia continued its existence and Republic by Plato is a clear example of this.
The civil order represented in the Republic by Plato is influenced by the utopian order of the Golden Age. The society constructed in Republic, with its organized structure, ruled by philosophers-kings, executive officials and guards, ←17 | 18→the everyday regulations, clearly depicts the utopian vision of the Hellenistic philosophy.
In the ideal town, according to Plato, ideal laws should exist: Every citizen should do what they are good at; humans should coexist peacefully and divide property equally. The ideal state of Plato has four main counterpoints: wisdom, bravery, justice and providence. Plato believes that only through the combination of these four parts can an ideal state emerge, whose main aim will be not to make one part of society but to make the create one, whole, happy state. We are modelling a state in our vision, which is fortunate by being united (http://www.idph.net/conteudos/ebooks/republic.pdf).
Despite this attempt, there was a great dilemma that Plato faced: In his ideal state, Plato is unable to fully identify the methods and laws that would root out corruption or depravity. Why seems the appropriate question to pose in this case. To elucidate this issue, we should be wise to delve into the term “Utopia” and its etymology and its ambiguous relation toward the categories of time and space.
In Book IV of Republic while discussing the model of an ideal state, Plato puts forward the understanding of utopia, by which inculcates the talk over