1) mura nashiji. The metallic powder forms irregular, more or less dense masses in cloudlike (mura) effects. Also known as uneven nashiji. There are several variations, including a similar irregular patchy effect called kasumi nashiji. Mura nashiji is more artistically effective when dispersed over larger surface areas but is also used in miniature lacquer (Frontispiece, Fig. 13).
2) kanoko nashiji. The metallic powder is dispersed in spots resembling the reddish spots on the back of a young deer (kanoko).
3) yasuriko nashiji. The metallic grains are quite large and very dense (yasuri=file, yasuriko=filings) and rolled fairly flat. When these heavy filings are strewn very sparingly, it is called usu-yasuriko nashiji (usu=thin, not densely spaced); If the background of yasuriko nashiji is gold (kinji) lacquer, it is also called ikakeji (poured-on ground).
4) gyobu nashiji. Invented by Gyobu Taro of Edo in the beginning of the 18th century. Consists of large irregular flakes of gold placed alongside of one another irregularly, forming a beautiful mosaic effect of gold. The technique was especially excellent on the inner surfaces of the inro made by the Kajikawa family (Fig. 14).
5) kin fundame (kin-fun, kin-pun). Very fine gold powder in black lacquer. Tundame (powder ground) consists of fine gold or silver powdered onto the ground or mixed with the lacquer and applied directly with the brush and worked to a soft, dull surface finish. Used as a ground for pictorial designs and also as a plain ground on insides of lacquered articles (Figs. 142, 223).
6) nashiji ishime. See page 130.
7) e-nashiji (picture nashiji). In this case the nashiji is used for the design rather than just for the background. Originated in the Momoyama period (Fig. 33).
8) heijin (even dust). Background of rough sprinkling of gold dust. Originated in the Heian period.
9) maki-bokashi (graduated sprinklings). Spreading metal powder more thinly in some places than in others. Originated in the Heian period.
10) ikakeji. Similar to the heijin method, but the gold powder is put on more densely. Originated in the Heian period.
11) chiriji. A variety of lacquer in which the background of a clear brown or black lacquer is powdered with fine gold or silver particles and enriched by scattering a few metallic particles. It is therefore a combination of nashiji and oki-hiram (Fig. 55).
12) tsuya-keshi (sheen extinguished). Dull finish, mostly in black, in which the polished lacquer is now purposely dulled by pounding with a hard brush filled with deerhorn powder. Other techniques of dull ground are fundame (powder ground), ishime-nuri, and sabiji (rust ground; Fig. 135). A slightly roughened lacquer surface is known as kodame chiriji. One beautiful, subtle style consists of delicate designs of dull black on a highly polished black ground. In general, dull grounds vary in degree of roughness from a smooth, flat mat to a coarse texture similar to the bark of a tree. Similarly, the dull lacquer may be in flat, medium, or high relief. It is most often done in black but also in brown tones and as gold or silver fundame. Zeshin's works quite often reveal grounds and also ornamental touches of such coarse texture, the latter usually in low relief. He was also fond of a flat, dull olive-gray ground (Figs. 11, 25).
HIRAME (FLAT EYE)
The two following techniques fall tinder this heading:
1) hirame or hirame nashiji. A lacquer technique employing the various irregular flat pieces of hirame as with nashiji. The particles are dusted into the wet lacquer surface and covered with transparent lacquer. Brilliant little metallic surface points are brought out by polishing. The particles of gold are larger than those used in nashiji. In general, this technique, in contrast to nashiji, is seen more frequently in the ground of older pieces (Fig. 51). Nashiji was more popular during the 19th century, at which time it was often of inferior quality.
2) oki-hirame. Relatively large, irregular, flat metallic (invariably gold) pieces are encrusted quite regularly next to one another, giving a rich gold mosaic pattern. This technique was used both on miniature and on larger pieces to produce a strong background effect for a simple central design (Figs. 45, 48, 101, 120, 139, 220). Rarely, the same technique is found using aogai (Fig. 15).
KANA-GAI (METALLIC FOIL)
In general, the metallic foil is slightly thicker than the usual gold leaf and is usually used flush with the ground or slightly elevated. Occasionally fairly heavy (thick) pieces are used to accentuate the design, such as indicating an object actually made out of gold rather than for purely ornamental purposes. The following techniques fall under this heading:
1) kirigane (cut metal). The metallic foil is cut into small various-sized squares or rectangles. These pieces are inlaid more or less irregularly side by side as a mosaic similar to that of oki-hirame or irregularly spaced according to their decorative use (Figs. 56, 57). They may be placed so that their dimensions gradually decrease. On old lacquer these squares of gold are mixed with squares of silver. Such metallic pieces are also often used in the design itself and are most frequently seen on rocks, on the heights of hills in a landscape, on clouds, on trunks of old trees, etc. (Figs, 53, 94). Kirigane is occasionally seen as a nashiji ground used mainly on sword hilts, where it is done in very narrow interspersed parallel rectangles. The technique of kirigane apparently dates from about the mid-14th century, and we know that it was frequently used by Koami Nagashige (Koami X) during the mid-17th century.
2) heidatsu and hyomon. Techniques of encrusted design using sheets of gold or silver foil. (See sections on imbedded and encrusted lacquer, pages 126, 127; see also Fig. 16.)
The Pictorial and Decorative Designs
The techniques of background decoration using metallic dustings have been described, as well as the various types of lacquer used for the basis. The methods of using and combining all of these materials into the final pictorial and decorative effects have already been classified. In general, the final design, no matter what technique is used, is either flat or raised to varying reliefs. Flat relief may be effected by level applications of lacquer for the design or by rubbing down, as in togidashi makie. Relief may be obtained by building up the design in lacquer or by means of encrustations or by carving out the lacquer (guri, tsuishu) or the wooden base itself (Kamakura-bori). Besides using varying degrees of relief, the design itself is brought out by employing numerous techniques, such as the following: 1) repeated metallic dustings, as in nashiji, 2) colored lacquers, 3) painting with lacquer solutions, 4) carving into the lacquer, 5) imbedding and encrusting various materials, and 6) combinations of these methods. Each of these techniques is to be described separately.
There are three different basic varieties of the makie, or "sown picture" technique: 1) togidashi, or rubbed lacquer, 2) hiramakie, or flat makie, and 3) takamakie, or makie in relief. These will be explained in detail below.
A second type of lacquer technique is accomplished by cutting the design into the lacquer. Examples are guri (crook ring), tsuishu (heap red), tsuikoku (heap black), and Zonsei.
A third type of lacquer is encrusted lacquer. In this technique the design consists entirely or in part of small or large precarved, relatively heavy pieces of various materials which are encrusted into the prepared lacquer. The material may consist of silver, gold, lead, pewter, metal alloys, mother-of-pearl, coral, ivory, faience, etc., and usually projects to varying heights beyond the level of the lacquer, but may