The semangat of wood is therefore of prime importance to the Malay woodcarver as it is the sole element that is intrinsic to the wood itself. It is a crucial element to both the existence and use of wood. Traditional woodcarvers of the past believed that it is the semangat contained within the wood that determines its beauty, the grain and lustre being directly related to the semangat forces contained within. (The stronger the semangat, the more lustrous, beautiful and flamboyant the grain.) Different types of wood have different types and levels of semangat contained within them.
Both the kemuning (Chinese myrtle, Murraya paniculata) (above) and the nangka (jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus) (below) are considered to have a high spiritual quality (semangat). Wood from the root and lower trunk of the kemuning is highly valued for its coloration and grain, and is used for keris hilts and sheaths. The nangka is light and resonant and is often used for musical instruments.
It is also the semangat of the wood that determines the proper use and utility of the various types of wood. Some with particularly strong semangat contained within them are better suited for nobler tasks, and are thus used to carve keris hilts, ceremonial objects, gates and doors, while lesser woods of lower semangat are kept for everyday use. The Malays' world of wood and woodcarving is therefore circumscribed by what can be called 'the economy of semangat', a complex system made up of the various factors that determine the accumulation, reproduction and loss of semangat of the wood itself.
The semangat or vital force of trees is directly related to their place in the natural order of things. All trees and all types of wood possess semangat. But different trees have different levels of semangat simply because they grow in particular places where semangat forces may be high or low. Like human beings whose semangat depends on the food they eat, the place they live in, the work they do, the semangat of wood is very much linked to external environmental factors as well. The environment has always been a crucial factor in the economy of semangat: The semangat of trees and various woods is directly related to the way in which the trees grow. Some types of environment and climate are thought to be particularly good for trees, and add to the semangat of the wood:
• Certain types of soil are important in determining the level of semangat found in wood. Black soil with some traces of sand was, and still is, thought to be particularly good for certain types of trees, such as the kemuning. Plots of land that were close to the sea and human settlement, with hills or mountains in the background, were also thought to be particularly good areas for harvesting wood harbouring strong semangat properties. This was because the trees were growing in areas where life forces were being generated (from human settlements and human activity) and this, in turn, nourished the semangat in the trees themselves.
• Hills and mountains are also regarded as being particularly good for producing trees imbued with strong semangat. Trees that grew on slopes and at higher altitudes were thought to have stronger semangat than those growing on the flat. In the past, Malay rulers and nobles would often reserve certain plots or areas on hillsides for their private cultivation of certain trees for their own specific ends.
• The sun, which is a source of vital light, heat and energy, is also a major source of semangat. The rays of the sun are thought to strengthen the semangat of a tree. The earliest woodcarvers believed that the best part of the tree was the one that faced the rising sun (that is, the part of the trunk that faced eastwards). The wood on this side of the trunk was thought to be of better quality and have stronger semangat, for the simple reason that it had received more early morning light that was purer and stronger.
Certain types of trees and wood also possess stronger semangat. Woods with strong and pronounced grains (coreng), stripes (jalur), ripples (kerinting) and colours (pela) are said to have stronger semangat properties. Such grains are often found in woods that have a core (teras) in them; indeed, trees with cores in their trunks are regarded to be of particularly strong semangat. It is evident that for the Malay wood-carver, it is the semangat of the wood itself that determines the particular characteristics of each type of wood, and not the other way round.
PINTU GERBANG (ENTRANCE GATE) (AR001)
Kelantan, mid-19th c., cengal wood, brass handles and hinges, 351.5 x 274.5 x 13 cm
A gateway built for a former Prime Minister of Kelantan (see pages 80-1).
The bongor (Lagerstroemia speciosa) (above) and the angsana (Pterocarpus indicus) (below) both have decorative grains which make them highly suitable for keris sheaths. When polished, the bongor has a striped appearance, described as jalur. In contrast, the angsana, a wayside flowering tree, possesses a subtle grain which when polished gives a rippled effect, known as kerinting, much like watered silk.
Types of Wood Used in Malay Woodcarving
Literally hundreds, if not thousands, of types and species of trees are found throughout the Malay archipelago. But while all trees produce wood, not all wood is of value or use to the traditional Malay woodcarver. Despite the variety of material found in abundance all around him, the woodcarver does not have complete freedom to determine the design of his work. Ultimately, he is merely a servant (abdi) to his art and its rules and norms. He is not the one who will decide what the finished product will look like, despite his initial plans and his good intentions. It is the wood itself that determines how it will be used. This has always been the case in the woodcarving tradition in Southeast Asia. Similar philosophies are apparent in the woodcarving traditions of East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan, and are also prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent.4
The form, pattern and grain of the wood will ultimately decide how and where it will be employed. This is because each type of wood has a character of its own, and it is this character that determines how it will best be used. Some patterns and grains are better suited for carving three-dimensional objects such as keris handles, while others are more suited to two-dimensional surfaces such as walls, decorative panels, furniture, doors and gates. (Even within a house, different types of wood will be used for different parts, depending on the latter's importance.) In classical Malay wood-carving, one often encounters unique pieces where the carver has deliberately ornamented his work in such a way as to enhance the grain and pattern of the wood, at the same time relegating his own carvings and adornments to a secondary status.
The most popular types of wood that were, and still are, commonly used by Malay woodcarvers include a number of hardwoods:
• Kemuning (Murraya paniculata, sometimes known as Chinese myrtle), a honey yellow hardwood endowed with a beautiful flame-like, luminescent grain running through it. Kemuning is also blessed with stripes as well as the quality of chatoyance (renek), or the ability to change its lustre. This is the king of woods for most Malay woodcarvers of the traditional school. It is highly prized in Malaysia, in particular, where its colour is thought to complement the gold brocaded cloth known as songket, another artistic tradition of the east coast states of the Malay Peninsula. This wood is often used for sculptures and keris sheaths and handles, and is so highly prized that it is never used for furniture or construction. Antique keris sheaths made of kemuning were rarely covered with silver or gold for additional decoration, as the beauty of the wood was regarded as being impressive enough by itself.
• Kenaung or kemung (Diospjros ebenum), often referred to as ebony, an extremely expensive black wood which is used for making keris handles. Its black tones add a touch of elegance and nobility to the keris handles that are made out of it. It remains a favourite among keris collectors who prefer the unstated elegance of monochromatic woods to the more outlandish