1. For Japanese relations with Asia during the Tokugawa period, see Ronald Toby, State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984), and Marius Jansen, China in the Tokugawa World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).
2. For a useful essay summarizing the Meiji discourse on Asia, see Marlene J. Mayo, ‘Attitudes toward Asia and the Beginnings of Japanese Empire,’ in Grant K. Goodman, comp., Imperial Japan and Asia: A Reassessment (New York: East Asian Institute, Columbia University, 1967), pp. 6-30. For a compilation of different accounts of the origins of Meiji imperialism see Marlene J. Mayo, comp., The Emergence of Imperial Japan: Self-defense or Calculated Aggression? (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1970).
3. The strategic concerns of late Meiji imperialism are discussed in James B. Crowley, “From Closed Door to Empire: The Formation of the Meiji Military Establishment,” in Bernard S. Silberman and H. D. Harootunian, eds., Modern Japanese Leadership (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1966), pp. 261–285.
4. On Meiji imperialism in Korea, see Hilary Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 1868–1910: A Study of Realism and Idealism in International Relations (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960), and Duus, Abacus and Sword.
5. On Japanese imperialism in Manchuria before 1931, see Ken'ichiro Hirano, “The Japanese in Manchuria, 1906–1931: A Study of the Historical Background of Manchukuo,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1983; Herbert P. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and Manchuria, 1890–1931,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1972; and Herbert P. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and the Manchurian Economy, 1900–1931,” China Quarterly 51 (July-September 1972), pp. 425–443.
6. For a definitive treatment of the treaty port system, see John K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1954, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953).
7. For economic concerns see Peter Duus, “Economic Dimensions of Meiji Imperialism: The Case of Korea, 1895-1910,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 128-171; and William D. Wray, “Japan's Big-Three Service Enterprises in China, 1896-1936” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 31-64.
8. On Great Power rivalries in China in the first two decades of the twentieth century, see Ian H. Nish, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires 1894–1907 (London; Athlone Press, 1966); Ian H. Nish, Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908–23 (London: Athlone Press, 1972); Peter Lowe, Great Britain and Japan, 1911–1915: A Study of British Far Eastern Policy (London: Macmillan, 1969); and Madeleine Chi, China Diplomacy, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, 1970).
9. The best summary treatment of Japanese colonialism is found in three essays by Mark R. Peattie: ‘The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945” in Peter Duus, ed., The Twentieth Century, vol. 6 of The Cambridge History of Japan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 217–270; “Introduction,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 3–52; and “Japanese Attitudes toward Colonialism, 1895–1945,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 80–127.
10. Ching-chih Chen, “Police and Community Control Systems in the Empire,” in Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 213–239.
11. On the early history of the Kwantung Army see Shimada Toshihiko, Kantgun: zaiMan rikugun no dokus (Ch
12. The most thorough treatment of the relationship between Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin) and the Japanese is found in Gavan McCormack, Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911–1928: China, Japan, and the Manchurian Idea (Stanford: Stanford Universitv Press, 1977).
13. McCormack, pp. 179–124.
14. On the early history of Mantetsu, see Ramon H. Myers, “Japanese Imperialism in Manchuria: The South Manchurian Railway Company, 1906–1933,” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895–1937 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 101–132; Manshikai, Mansh kaihatsu yonjnenshi, vol. 1 (Mansh
15. Nakamura Seishi, “Hyakusha rankingu no hensen,” Ch kron keiei mondai (special issue, Fall 1977); Kigy tkei sran (T
16. Japanese tax revenue was 175 million yen in 1920, 895 in 1925, and 835 in 1930: And
17. Myers, “Japanese Imperialism,” p. 111.
18. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and the Manchurian Economy,” pp. 425-443; McCormack, p. 7.
19. Coox, Nomonhan, vol. 1, p. 6.
20. Mobilization and casualty figures from Inoue Kiyoshi, Nikon teikokushugi no keisei (Iwanami shoten, 1968), pp. 227-239, and Iguchi Kazuki, “Nisshin, Nichiro sens