If someone believes that a child may be suffering, or be at risk of suffering significant harm, then s/he should always refer his or her concerns to the local authority social services department … While professionals (and others) should seek, in general, to discuss any concerns with the family and, where possible, seek their agreement to making referrals to social services, this should only be done where such discussion and agreement-seeking will not place a child at increased risk of significant harm. (Department of Health 1999)
2
Power, Authority and Vulnerability
So Jesus called them and said to them, ‘You know that among the Gentiles those whom they recognize as their rulers lord it over them, and their great ones are tyrants over them. But it is not so among you; but whoever wishes to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wishes to be first among you must be slave of all. For the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life a ransom for many.’ Mark 10.42–45
2.1. Human and divine power
Power in the human context can be defined as ‘the ability to influence the behaviour, thoughts, emotions and attitudes of other people’ (Bons-Storm 1996, p. 25). The power held by human beings in our society is derived from a variety of sources, including money and possessions, physical health and strength, age, gender, colour, ethnic origin, educational attainment and social status. In a secular context power tends to be seen as something negative, evoking images of control, exploitation and abuse. Often power is spoken of as if it is a possession in limited supply which will diminish if shared. Thus power becomes confused with domination, although they are not the same. The Bible teaches us that power can be used destructively or in ways that are liberating, enabling others to flourish and grow. Christians believe that power belongs to God, but that as ‘participants in the divine nature’ (2 Peter 1.4) and through the power of the Holy Spirit, we share in God’s power. This life-enhancing power is crucial in the story of salvation and a key issue in our spiritual life. We should not hide it or deny it, but own it and use it creatively in the service of others and to build up the whole Church. Jesus, in his life and ministry, shows us divine power being used in response to human need, but always inviting and never forcing a response (Doctrine Commission 2003).
2.2. Inequalities of power in ministerial relationships
All ministers need to recognize and be sensitive to inequalities of power in ministerial relationships and to use their power in ways that are positive and enabling for others. At times this may mean that a minister has to consciously set aside his or her own power in order to empower the other person. Wisdom in the exercise of power can only be achieved through a willingness to examine how we use our power and humility in accepting criticism from those who are less powerful. It also requires that those who feel relatively powerless resist the role of victim and have the courage to confront those who hold power in relation to them. It takes courage to risk offering honest criticism to someone in authority, especially if they are someone we like or whose approval matters to us. It also requires the humility to recognize that sometimes our criticisms may be misjudged or unfair (Doctrine Commission 2003).
The story of the Canaanite woman (who challenges Jesus saying to him ‘Yes, Lord, yet even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their masters’ table’, to which he responds ‘Woman, great is your faith! Let it be done for you as you wish’) exemplifies the creative possibilities when both the powerful and the powerless are able to listen and learn from each other (Matt. 15.21–28). Refusal to listen to another person’s point of view comes from a fear of losing power. Jesus’ response demonstrates a very different possibility. The Canaanite woman’s courage in confronting Jesus and his willingness to listen bring him a wider understanding of his calling, while she is empowered in her faith and her daughter is healed.
2.3. Authority and ordination
Authority is power that is both explicit and legitimate. Clergy need to be aware that, even if they see themselves as sharing power or working collaboratively, ordination confers a particular authority which can be extremely influential upon lay people. Such authority encompasses not only the institutional authority of official appointment, but also the authority from God to be a symbolic representative of the community of faith and religious tradition. This authority is symbolized at ordination with the words, ‘Receive this book as a sign of the authority which God has given you this day …’
It may be difficult for some who hold the authority of ordained ministry to recognize its effect on others, particularly if they experience themselves as lacking power or influence. Ordained ministers who are insecure in themselves, or feel that their authority is threatened in some way, may compensate by misusing the authority of ordination as if it were their possession. They may rely upon it to bolster their own fragile self-esteem or to enhance their status and power in relation to lay people, rather than seeing it as something to be used to empower the whole faith community.
Ordained ministers need to be particularly aware of how the authority of ordination may affect those whom they are helping. Authority explicitly derived from God will be especially potent in its effect on people of faith. It may make it much harder for them to be critical or to complain, even when there are major failures of ministerial competence or integrity. Authority ascribed to an individual tends to increase the impact that their approval or disapproval, neglect or support has on those who recognize that authority. As a result, the views and opinions of clergy can have a powerful positive or negative influence on parishioners, even though the individual ordained minister might feel that their influence is negligible. It requires humility and imagination to remain in touch with the powerlessness and vulnerability which lay people, junior colleagues or those in training may experience. Their response to feeling powerless may be on a spectrum from uncritical obedience to hostile rejection of authority.
All ministers exercising authority within the Church need to be aware of how authority can be misused or abused, whether consciously or not, and to have constantly in mind their servant status.
2.4. Typology of power
Rollo May’s typology of power (1972) can be helpful in assessing the way we exercise power within ministerial relationships where there are inequalities of power:
exploitative power dominates, using force and coercion, such as threats or destructive criticism;
manipulative power controls in more subtle or disguised ways, for example by exclusion from significant communication or using the other person to meet one’s need to be needed;
competitive power is deeply ingrained in our culture, particularly in our educational and economic systems. It can be positive and energizing when parties are relatively equal, for example in sport, but is destructive where there is an imbalance of power;
nutritive power sustains and empowers, enabling the less powerful person to develop their own competence and freedom to act, as when adults enable children to do things for themselves, even if to start with they need help and support;
integrative power respects the freedom of the other person and encourages their potential strengths; it involves relating to them as an equal, albeit with a different role, as in a training relationship where the training incumbent brings skills and experience in ministry and the curate brings skills and experience from previous employment such as teaching.
The following questions are important for all in pastoral ministry:
What forms of power are most appropriate and life-enhancing in the context of pastoral care?
What forms of power are negative and destructive in their effects?
Does the minister exercise power over others or use power to enable others?
How can power be exercised with a care and sensitivity for those who feel less powerful and an awareness of how it feels to be vulnerable and relatively powerless?
The use of exploitative, manipulative or competitive power is always damaging within pastoral